Conclusions: Continuity and Change, Hand in Hand

Among the German merchant elite, social reproduction is a concept that explains family strategies. It combines both educational and marriage strategies and forms an overarching concept that explains the early modern business families’ behaviour.

Family strategies were expansive and reductive at the same time. Reductive strategies tried to hold on to the old and keep power and wealth within the existing (family) network. In this strategy, marriages within the network were preferred. Young men were encouraged to find wives inside the family network. Almost all the studied young men married a young German woman. Some German men, however, found a wife among the British community, to whom they had close ties because of the timber trade—Britain was the main buyer of Baltic timber at the time, and British merchants had settled in the Baltic for the same reasons as the Germans. This reductive strategy ensured that the capital would not spread outside the community. There were only two individuals who chose a non-German wife: Carl Alexander Hackman, who married a Swedish-speaking woman against his mother’s wishes, and Johann Laube, who married a Russian woman and made an established career in the Russian administration—his choice seems to have been profitable and reasonable for him.

If the sons’ marriage strategies were reductive, the daughters’ strategies were expansive.

When comparing these two strategies, it seems that at the point when the family business was already rooted in a certain community and the family had secured its position in the local social circles, there was less need for expansive strategies, and, hence, the reductive strategy came to the fore. When the families searched for wives for their sons, they used the reductive strategy. They did not want to take a risk of dividing the family assets with outsiders. The expansive strategy was instead used when daughters got married. Daughters were not cut out of the family business and family networks; rather, their husbands were tied to these networks, and the daughters held their shares of the family business. In this model, the husbands were risk takers, but many of them did not have much to lose. For newcomers such as Johan Friedrich Laube and Johan Friedrich Hackman, this strategy was beneficial since they entered the local elite soon after arriving in the Northern Baltic.

Based on the educational and marriage strategies of the studied families, it is evident that the family firm was extremely important. Education can be explained by expansive strategies. Sons were educated so that they could bring new skills and technologies to the family business. Sons and sons-in-law brought new ideas, knowledge, and skills and therefore ensured the social reproduction and survival of the family firm. Young men were educated so that they could serve the family business in the most beneficial ways. This meant that in every generation, families guaranteed that at least one son took responsibility for the family firm. Usually, it was the eldest son.

Sending young girls abroad can also be seen as part of the expansive strategy. At foreign boarding schools, they learned skills they could not gain in their hometowns. However, they were called home to marry local men, not their friends’ brothers in Switzerland and Germany, for example. If they had done so, the investment made in their education would be in vain and—in the worst-case scenario—provide assets to their business competitors in Europe. This can be seen as a reductive strategy; it is an attempt to maintain the economic and cultural capital within the existing network.

Women had a crucial role in social reproduction. They not only gave birth to the next generation but also transferred cultural and social capital. This included teaching the next generation and attending informal social gatherings where information was exchanged. The women’s responsibility for socialising is not usually understood as a part of the family business or a part of their wifely duties but as a separate, ‘leisured’ activity performed in family homes. However, as illustrated in this chapter, women’s duties as hostesses and mistresses were important. They were taught these societal skills at foreign boarding schools. At the same time, socialising was not a duty that men could escape. It is impossible to separate the public role as a merchant or civil servant from the private world of the family. Hence, both boys and girls were taught how to socialise: sophisticated manners, dancing, music, and languages were obligatory for both sexes.

Young people generally had little say in their education; it was an investment made by the parents.

Among the Northern Baltic merchant elite, family strategies were not monolithic; they could be adapted in changing situations. For example, changes in family, local political or administrative circumstances, and technological developments made the families adapt their strategies. The most important value was that the family business survived to be passed on to the next generation, and all the families’ actions were geared to supporting this aim.

Notes

1. Johan Friedrich Hackman (b. 1755 in Bremen, d. 1807 in Vyborg). Marie Elisabeth Hackman (b. Laube in 1776 in Vyborg, died 1865 in Vyborg). Johan Friedrich Hackman (b. 1801 in Vyborg, d. 1879 in Vyborg, merchant, the head of Hackman & Co.). Carl Alexander Hackman (b. 1806 in Vyborg, d. 1846 in Vyborg, captain in the Imperial army). Wilhelm Sutthoff (b. 1800 in Narva, d. 1871 in Narva, merchant, the head of Carl Sutthoff & Co.). Wilhelm Sutthoff had an older brother, Hermann (b. 1796 in Narva, d. 1865 in Narva); a sister, Maria Elisabeth Sutthoff; and two younger brothers, Eduard Sutthoff (b. 1803 in Narva, d. 1879 in Narva, merchant, partner in Carl Sutthoff & Co.) and Robert Sutthoff (b. 1806 in Narva).

2. Vyborg was a garrison and trade town 150 kilometres northwest of St Petersburg. From 1721, it belonged to Russia; the main population consisted of Finnish peasants; Swedish-speaking craftsmen; German, Swedish, and Russian merchants and petty traders; and Russian officers and civil servants, many of whom belonged to the Baltic German nobility.

3. The Sutthoff family had moved from Lübeck to Vyborg in the seventeenth century and then, later, from Vyborg to Narva.

4. Maria Elisabeth Sutthoff was married to Heinrich Friedrich Dieckhoff.

5. One of them married a British woman. The British were closely connected to the Germans through the timber trade.

6. Nikolai Heinrich Engelhardt, born in 1730 in St Petersburg, died in 1778 in Vyborg.

7. Natalie Steinheil, nee Engelhardt, born in 1773 in Vyborg, died in 1829 in Helsinki. Fabian Gotthard Steinheil, born in 1762 in Haapsalu, died in 1831 in Helsinki.

8. Emilie Marie Sophie (1826–1903) married Baron, Governor of St Michel (Mikkeli) Province, Senator Carl Emil Cedercreutz (1806–1869); Alexandrine (1838–1918) married Engineer Captain Carl August Ekstrom (1823–1900). Julie Marie Amalie (1840–1907) married twice. Her first husband was Lieutenant-Colonel Wilhelm von Koskull (1832–1875), and her second husband was Major-General Alexander von Dehn (1835–1894). Woldemar (1831–1871), who continued the business, married a fellow businessman’s daughter, Emilie Krohn (1841–1922). Major-General Julius Friedrich (1832–1933) married a St Petersburg businessman’s daughter, Elisabeth Eufrosyne Crüger (1824–1916). Wilhelm (1842–1925), who also continued the business, married an English businessman’s daughter, Alice Marianne von Thompson (1850–1930), Ijäs (2017).

9. In 1788, when the school was opened, Marie Laube was twelve years old. The pupils at the school were six to thirteen years old, and their family backgrounds varied greatly. Some came from craftsmen’s families, while some had fathers who were ministers, merchants, or officers—hence, a similar background to Marie Hackman (Laube). It seems that the Laube family did not appreciate the school curriculum or the standard of teaching, or they simply thought that their daughter did not need a formal education.

10. There were also private local German schools, such as Miss Dorothea Rechenberg’s ‘Mädchenschule’.

11. Fräulein Lusie could have been from Switzerland. She spoke German and French.

12. A career in military service was in many cases a route into the civil service. After an active military career, men could serve the state in numerous civil service duties, which varied from postmaster (e.g. Johan Laube) to governor (e.g. Carl Emil Cedercreutz), vice-chancellor of the Imperial Alexander University in Helsinki (Alexander Amatus Thesleff), or even governor-general of the Grand Duchy of Finland (e.g. Fabian Steinheil).

13. Engelhardt’s mother was Anna Maria Haveman.

14. Screen and Syrjo, the writers of the history of Hamina cadet school, point out that P.G. Thesleff did not have a formal education and spoke only German and Russian. At this time, this was very typical in the Imperial Russian Army. Instead of a formal education, young boys got their training in their regiments or in action, like Thesleff had. He had participated in the Napoleonic Wars and was promoted to major-general before serving in the cadet academy.

15. ‘Ten bullets’ means the best grade (10/10 points).

16. Even Paul Wahl, the son of the minister of the German congregation in Vyborg, August Gottfried Wahl, became a businessman. Paul Wahl trained at Hackman & Co. and at Baron A. G. Rall’s bank in St Petersburg. His son, Alexander Wahl, studied at the private lyceum in Helsinki with Victor and Alexander Hackman.

17. Slous: possibly a misspelled word; sorting the salt according its quality.

18. For example, Henry Eeeles Dresser (b. 1838 Thirsk, d. 1915 Monte Carlo), son of Henry Dresser and Eliza Ann Garbutt, spent two years in the 1850s in Vyborg learning trade and business. Dresser and his brother-in-law, Robert Garbutt, were Hackman’s business partners.

Archival Material

Cedercreutz, Emilie. File 25, Julie Hackman’s letters, Handelshuset Hackman, Abo Akademi Library, Turku.

———1855. Emilie Cedercreutz to Julie Hackman, 17 November.

———1860. Emilie Cedercreutz to Julie Hackman, 22 August.

———1861 Cedercreutz, Emilie. 1861. Emilie Cedercreutz to Julie Hackman, 18 March.

Hackman, Johan Friedrich. 1806. Johan Friedrich Hackman to Bruun, 25 May 1806. Book 25, Hackman & Co, Elinkeinoelämän keskusarkisto [The Central Archives for Finnish Business Records], Mikkeli.

Hackman, Julius. 1847. Julius Hackman to J. F. Hackman, 16 Nov. 1847, File 24, J. F. Hackman’s letters, Handelshuset Hackman, Abo Akademi Library, Turku.

Hackman, the firm. Hackman & Co, Elinkeinoelämän keskusarkisto [The Central Archives for Finnish Business Records], Mikkeli.

———. 1819 [1819a]. Hackman & Co to Clementz & Berg, 6 January 1819, Book 36.

———. 1819 [1819b]. Hackman & Co to Ignatius, 1 August 1819, Book 37.

———.1821 [1821a]. Hackman & Co to Jones, 1 August 1821, Book 41.

———.1821 [1821b] Hackman & Co to J. F. Hackman, 5 September 1821, Book 42.

———Hackman & Co to Bruun, 6 October 1825, Book 52.

Hackman, Marie. 1844. Marie Hackman to Emilie Cedercreutz, 26 July 1844, File Bb1, Emilie Cedercreutz letters, Handelshuset Hackman, Abo Akademi Library, Turku.

Hackman, Wilhelm. 1906. Wilhelm Hackman to Ernst Nordstrom, 1. Nov. 1906, File 10, Wilhelm Hackmans letters, Handelshuset Hackman, Abo Akademi Library, Turku.

Sutthoff, Maria Elisabeth. 1816. Maria Elisabeth Sutthoff to Wilhelm Sutthoff, 26 March 1816, Perekond Sutthoff EAA.3249, Rahvusarhiiv, The National Archives of Estonia, Tartu.

Databases

Hackman, Julius Fredrik, Suomalaiset kenraalit ja amiraalit Venäjän sotavoimissa 1809–1917. Biografiakeskus, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, Helsinki 1997—. Accessed May 16, 2018. https://kansallisbiografia.fi/kenraalit/henkilo/180

Kotivuori, Yrjo 2005. Ylioppilasmatrikkeli 1640–1852, Alexander August Wahl. Accessed May 16, 2018. https://ylioppilasmatrikkeli.helsinki.fi/henkilo.php?id=17001

Laube, Johann Friedrich/Ivan Jurevicˇ ID29710, Erik Amburger Datenbank. Accessed May 16, 2018. http://dokumente.ios-regensburg.de/amburger

Laube, Johann Nikolaevicˇ ID29709, Erik Amburger Datenbank Accessed May 16, 2018. http://dokumente.ios-regensburg.de/amburger

Thesleff, Peter Georg, Suomalaiset kenraalit ja amiraalit Venäjän sotavoimissa 1809–1917. Biografiakeskus, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, Helsinki 1997—. Accessed May 16, 2018. https://kansallisbiografia.fi/kenraalit/henkilo/453

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