Figures

2.1 Synthetic map of the first principal component of variation in ninety-five classical genetic markers (from L.L. Cavalli-Sforza et al., The History and Geography of Human Genes, © 1994 by Princeton University Press) 32

2.2 Plot of the age ranges of the major mitochondrial DNA founder clusters in Europe, inferred from a founder analysis of control-region sequences (after M.

2.3 Genome-wideSNP admixture analysis of global populations 39

2.4 Frequencies of mtDNA haplogroups based on ancient DNA from Europe, with comparative contemporary data (April 2014) from the same regions 45

3.1 Nilo-Saharan linguistic stratigraphy 61

3.2 Nilo-Saharan family tree: new subsistence lexicon, from proto-North Sudanic to proto-Sahelian periods 66

3.3 The family tree of the early stages of Cushitic divergence 69

3.4 The Niger-Congo family tree 72

4.1 Example of bone formation on tibia (lower leg bone) 100

4.2 Example of bone destruction in vertebrae 101

4.3 Dental caries in first permanent molar tooth 108

4.4 Cribra orbitalia in orbit 112

4.5 Rib with new bone formation on it 114

4.6 Normal vertebra (left) and one with a healed fracture to the spinous process (‘clay-shoveller's fracture') 115

4.7 Entheseal changes (new bone formation in form of a spur) to end of ulna (forearm bone) 116

4.8 Femur (thigh bone) with circumscribed area of destruction (Allen's fossa),

possibly related to ‘activity' 118

4.9 Enamel hypoplasia in teeth (lines/grooves) 120

5.1 Gilgal I, Jordan valley: (a) general site plan (after O. Bar-Yosef et al. (eds.), Gilgal:

Early Neolithic Occupations in the Lower Jordan Valley: The Excavations of Tamar Noy (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2010), fig.

5.2 Gobekli Tepe, southeast Turkey: (a) aerial view of the main excavation area (photo N. Becker © DAI); (b) Pillar 43 in Enclosure D is one of the most richly decorated (photo K. Schmidt © DAI) 133

5.3 Reconstructed MPPNB house, Tell Halula, Syria, showing subfloor burials and rooms at the back for storage (from I. Kuijt et al., ‘The changing Neolithic household: household autonomy and social segmentation, Tell Halula, Syria', Journal OfAnthropological Archaeology, 30 (2011), 502-22, fig. 4, reprinted by permission of Elsevier) 135

5.4 Hornstaad-Hornle, Lake Constance, southwest Germany: (a) plan of the excavated area with distribution of tool types; (b) inset of whole site plan and reconstructed house; (c) charred cereal ears from household stores (after Schlichtherle 1995: figs. 2, 3; B. Dieckmann et al., ‘Hornstaad - Zur inneren Dynamik einer jungneolithischen Dorfanlage am westlichen Bodensee', in A. Lippert et al. (eds.), Mensch und Umwelt wahrend des Neolithikums und der Fruhbronzezeit in Mitteleuropa (Rahden: Marie-Leidorf, 2001), fig. 19; U. Maier, ‘ Archaobotanische Untersuchungen in der neolithischen Ufersiedlung Hornstaad-Hornle IA am Bodensee', in U. Maier and R. Vogt (eds.), Siedlungsarchaologie in Alpenvorland, vol. vi: Botanische und pedologische Untersuchungen zur Ufersiedlung Hornstaad-Hornle IA. (Stuttgart: Konrad Theiss, 2001), Plate 5) (photo reproduced with the permission of the Landesamt Inr Denkmalpflege im Regierungsprasidium, Stuttgart) 139

5.5 The chambered long cairn at Hazleton North, Gloucestershire, UK: (a) plan (after A. Saville, Hazleton North: The Excavation of a Neolithic Long Cairn of the Cotswold- Severn Group (London: English Heritage, 1990)); (b) disarticulated human remains in the south chamber (A.

5.6 Early paddy-field systems at Chuodun, lower Yangtze, China: (a) plan; (b) paddy-field unit showing connecting canals (after D.Q. Fuller and L. Qin, ‘Water management and labour in the origins and dispersal of Asian rice', World Archaeology, 41 (2009), fig. 3 and plate 2, reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd) 147

5.7 (a) Dry-fields and adjacent houses of the Chulmun period at the Pyeonggeodong site, Jinju, South Gyeongsang province, South Korea (courtesy of Mr Ho-Pil Yun, ChiefResearcher, Historical and Archaeological Center, Gyeongnam Development Institute); (b) plan of dry-field areas and associated houses, hearths, and pit features of the Mumun period, Daepyeong I, Jinju, South Gyeongsang province, South Korea (courtesy of Mr Ho-Pil Yun and Dr G.-A. Lee, University of Oregon) 149

5.8 Dolmen cluster at San 125, Osang-ri village, Naega-myeon subcounty, Gyeonggi province, South Korea (photo by Sunwoo Kim) 151

5.9 Reconstruction of the ‘public building' (Structure 6) at SanJose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico (reprinted by permission of the publisher from K.V. Flannery and

J. Marcus, The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stagefor Monarchy, Slavery and Empire, 140 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012) 153

5.10 (a) Plan of the SU site, Mogollon mountains (courtesy of the Field Museum, A88136); (b) plan of Shabik'eshchee Village, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico (courtesy of National Park Service, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, CHCU 65708) 155

8.1 View of the Round Tower at Jericho, 8000 bce (photo: Israel/Ancient Art and Architecture Collection Ltd/Bridgeman Images) 223

8.2 One of the carved columns from Gobekli Tepe (from

A.H. Simmons, The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East: Transforming the Human Landscape (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2007)) 225

8.3 PPNB architecture at Ghwair I, southern Jordan (photo by Alan H.

8.4 The modern village of Dana, near Ghwair I in southern Jordan, as an analogy for a PPNB village (from A.H. Simmons, The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East: Transforming the Human Landscape (Tucson: University of Arizona Press,

2007)) 227

8.5 Cypro-PPNB 'Ais Giorkis, Cyprus (photo by Alan H. Simmons) 237

9.1 Schematic plan of excavated units at 'Ain Ghazal on the western (top) and eastern banks of the Wadi Zarqa (Zarqa River) (drawing by G. Rollefson based on earlier versions by A. Omari and M. Bataineh) 244

9.2 A late Yarmoukian tent foundation, a remnant of a visit to 'Ain Ghazal by sheep/ goat pastoralists (photo by Y. Zo'bi) 246

9.3 The western room of an MPPNB house from the Central Field at 'Ain Ghazal (photo by C. Blair) 248

9.4 The ground floor of a two-storey building that caught fire and was thoroughly destroyed in the later LPPNB period (photo by Y. Zo'bi) 249

9.5 (a) A PPNC ‘corridor building' (photograph by C. Blair); (b) a Yarmoukian ‘longhouse' (photo by Y. Zo'bi) 251

9.6 (a) An MPPNB subfloor burial whose skull was removed, and the body then re­covered with dirt and a new plaster floor (photo by C. Blair); (b) a ‘trash burial' from the later MPPNB period (photo by B. Byrd) 253

9.7 MPPNB skull from 'Ain Ghazal showing the delicate modelling of the plaster coating (photo by H. Wada) 255

9.8 (a) One of three two-headed plaster busts; (b) one of two free-standing statues from the cache excavated from 'Ain Ghazal in 1985 (photos by John Tsantes) 257

9.9 (a) An apsidal building originally constructed in the LPPNB period but later cleared and re-used by Yarmoukian residents (photo by H. Wada); (b) a circular ‘shrine' in the North Field (photo by Y. Zo'bi) 258

9.10 (a) View to the north of an LPPNB temple built high on the slope of the East Field; (b) the temple at the south end of the East Field (photos by B. Degedeh) 259

10.1 Timeline of the South Asian Neolithic, focusing on the areas mentioned in the text and showing the approximate time that various crops and livestock enter the archaeological record 265

11.1 Google Earth^TM image showing the location of Mehrgarh (circled to left) in relation to the location of the later Pirak (circled to right), each site lying on a separate alluvial fan (after C.A.

11.2 Map of Mehrgarh showing the location of excavated areas in relation to the course of the Bolan River (after C. Jarrige et al. (eds.), Mehrgarh: Field Reports 1974-1985 from Neolithic Times to the Indus Civilisation (Karachi: Department of Culture and Tourism, Government of Sindh, Pakistan, in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, i995), fig. 4) 29i

11.3 Reproduction of the section along the river adjacent to mr 3 South, showing alternating levels of occupation and grave pits (after J.-F. Jarrige et al., ‘Mehrgarh Neolithic: the updated sequence', in C. Jarrige and V. Lefevre (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 2001, 2 vols. (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 2005), vol. i, fig. 2) 294

11.4 Plan of Burial 287, Mehrgarh period i (after M. Lechevallier and G. Quivron, ‘Results of recent excavations at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh', in J. Schotsmans and M. Taddei (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1983, Series Minor 23 (Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, i985), 69-90, fig. 9) 296

12.1 Flotation to retrieve carbonized plant remains at Liulin, Shanxi province; Zhijun Zhao in the middle 3i4

12.2 Foxtail millet field in Aohan, near the Xinglonggou site 3i7

12.3 Carbonized remains of millet from Xinglonggou, dating to 7700 cal bce 3i8

12.4 Rice field in Zhejiang province 324

12.5 The Neolithic site of Hemudu (photograph kindly supplied by Judith Cameron) 324

12.6 Field systems at Chuodun, dating to 4000 cal bce 327

12.7 Paddy-field systems at Maoshan dating to 4700-4200 cal bce (after P. Ding et al., ‘Zhejiang Yuhang Linping Maoshan yizhi (Maoshan site at Linping, Yuhang, Zhejiang province)', News on Cultural Relics, i7 March 20i0,

fig. i) 328

13.1 Post-excavation plan of Xinglonggou i (after H. Yang et al., The Origin of Jades in East Asia: Jades of the Xinglongwa Culture (Centre for Chinese Archaeology and Art, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007), i9) 337

13.2 Xinglonggou i, looking northwest 339

13.3 Cultivated fields of maize and weedy millet near Xinglonggou 340

13.4 Early Neolithicjade slit ring from Xinglonggou i (after Yang et al.

13.5 Rows of early Neolithic ‘pit structures' at Xinglonggou i (after Yang et al. 2008: ii) 344

13.6 Animal skulls in the western part of ‘pit structure' F5 at Xinglonggou i (after Yang et al. 2008: 23) 345

13.7 Terracotta statue recovered at Xinglonggou ii 347

14.1 Excavations of early Yayoi rice paddies at Itazuke, Fukuoka prefecture, revealed the footprints of some of the earliest known rice farmers in the Japanese archipelago (courtesy of Fukuoka Prefectural Board of Education) 357

14.2 Material culture associated with early rice farming: Yayoi pottery from Itazuke, Fukuoka prefecture, stone reaping knives from Yoshinogari, Saga prefecture, and wooden agricultural tools from Sasai, Fukuoka prefecture (redrawn from A. Wieczorek and W. Steinhaus (eds.), Zeit der Morgenrote: Japans Archaologie und Geschichte bis zu den ersten Kaisern (Mannheim: Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, 2004)) 358

14.3 TheJomon and Yayoi annual ‘calendars' of subsistence activities. Left: Jomon calendar (adapted from T. Kobayashi, Jomon Reflections (Oxford: Oxbow, 2004)); right: Yayoi calendar (adapted from Osaka Prefectural Museum of Yayoi Culture (ed.), Yayoi bunka (Yayoi Culture) (Osaka, 1991), 93) 361

14.4 Plan of Toro, a late Yayoi farming village in Shizuoka prefecture (from C.M. Aikens and T. Higuchi, The Prehistory of Japan (New York and London: Academic Press, 1982), 227) 363

14.5 Ditch-enclosed Yayoi settlement, Otsuka, Kanagawa prefecture (courtesy of Kanagawa Prefectural Board of Education) 370

14.6 Yayoi period paddy fields from Osaka (redrawn from T. Inoue, ‘Early irrigation systems of rice paddy fields in Japan', in BJ. Coles et al. (eds.) Bog Bodies, Sacred Sites and Wetland Archaeology (Exeter: Wetland Archaeology Research Project, 1999), 115-20) 371

14.7 Plan of the sixth-century farmstead at Kuroimine, Gunma prefecture (redrawn from Inoue 1999): (a) Kuroimine western area; (b) Kuroimine eastern area 374

14.8 Model of the satoyama landscape (redrawn from K. Takeuchi et al. (eds.), Satoyama: The Traditional Rural Landscape of Japan (Berlin: Springer, 2003)) 384

15.1 The distribution of finalJomon and early Yayoi sites in the southern Nara basin 388

15.2 Early Yayoi paddy fields and settlement at Kawanishi-Negarigaki, a moated circular settlement of the Early Yayoi period; and (b) Haginomoto, the first paddy fields of the Early Yayoi period found in the Ner basin 390

15.3 The transition from the finalJomon settlement to early Yayoi paddy fields at Tamade 391

15.4 Location of the Nakanishi-Akitsu site complex 393

15.5 Plan and section of early Yayoi paddies at Nakanishi-Akitsu 396

15.6 FinalJomon and early Yayoi pottery chronology and calibrated radiocarbon dates 398

15.7 Calibrated radiocarbon dates from the paddy fields at Nakanishi-Akitsu 399

15.8 Transformation of the wild landscape to paddy field at Nakanishi-Akitsu 407

16.1 Peter Bellwood's model of the Austronesian dispersals of farmers from MSEA into ISEA (from G. Barker, The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why did Foragers Become Farmers? (Oxford University Press, 2009), fig. 6.17) 414

16.2 Burial 86 at Ban Non Wat, c. 1500 bce: individual interred with pig remains, including pig skull placed on right lower limb (image credit: Charles Higham) 424

16.3 Rice remains from ‘Neolithic' sites in Thailand: (a) domesticated rice spikelet base from Khao Sam Kaeo TP43 US4, dating to

383-203 BCE (WK18769); (b) rice caryopsis from Khao Sam Kaeo TP57 US16, dating to 359-57 bce (WK21175); (c) rice caryopsis from Ban Non Wat K500 4.2 GEN, direct AMS date of 441-203 bce (BA121030); (d) rice caryopsis from Phu Khao Thong S7 US4, dating to 36 bce to 125 ce (OxA26629) (image credits: Cristina Castillo) 427

16.4 Niah Cave, flexed burial B205, looking northeast (left,

scale = 1 m), with a close-up view (top right) showing a Neolithic polished quadrangular adze that was buried with it (bottom right black and white scales in cm) (image credit: Graeme Barker/G. Barker and M. Janowski (eds.), Why Cultivate? Anthropological and Archaeological Approaches to Foraging-Farming Transitions in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2011), fig. 7) 433

16.5 Three skulls placed on the chest of a single burial at Teouma, Vanuatu (from S. Bedford et al., ‘The Teouma Lapita site and the early human settlement of the Pacific Islands', Antiquity, 80 (2006), fig. 9) 435

16.6 Landscape view of a typical homegarden (behind house) showing polycultural nature of mixed plantings that grades seamlessly into a secondary, managed forest, that itself has regenerated from an older slash- and-burn field (identified by the low areas of vegetation in the image) (photo by Huw Barton) 441

17.1 Maps showing (a) the location of Kuk in Papua New Guinea; and (b) Kuk Swamp within its landscape setting 448

17.2 Archaeostratigraphic model for the stratigraphy at Kuk (from T.P. Denham et al., ‘Contiguous multi-proxy analyses (X-radiography, diatom, pollen and microcharcoal) of Holocene archaeological features at Kuk Swamp, upper Wahgi valley, Papua New Guinea', Geoarchaeology, 24 (2009), fig. 3) 452

17.3 Schematic depiction of the conceptual and methodological bases for the interpretation of early agriculture in New Guinea (updated version of T.P. Denham, ‘Early to mid-Holocene plant exploitation in New Guinea: towards a contingent interpretation of agriculture', in T.P. Denham et al. (eds.), Rethinking Agriculture: Archaeological and Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2007), fig. 5.4) 453

17.4 Chronology of practices and forms of plant exploitation in the upper Wahgi valley (updated version of T.P. Denham et al., ‘Contiguous multi-proxy analyses (X-radiography, diatom, pollen and microcharcoal) of Holocene archaeological features at Kuk Swamp, upper Wahgi valley, Papua New Guinea', Geoarchaeology, 24 (2009), fig. 1) 454

17.5 Archaeobotanical and palaeoecological information from Kuk: (a) summary pollen and microcharcoal diagram; (b-e) photomicrographs of phytoliths and starch grain residues from stone tools, and an electron micrograph of an aroid seed at Kuk dating to c. 10,000 years ago (reproduced from T.P. Denham, ‘Environmental archaeology: interpreting practices-in-the-landscape through geoarchaeology', in B. David and J. Thomas (eds.), Handbook of Landscape Archaeology (Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, 2008), 468-81) 456

17.6 Archaeological features indicative of early agricultural practices at Kuk (all photos provided by, and used with permission of, Prof. Jack Golson and reproduced from T.P. Denham, ‘Early to mid-Holocene plant exploitation in New Guinea: towards a contingent interpretation of agriculture', in T.P. Denham et al. (eds.), Rethinking Agriculture: Archaeological and Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2007), fig. 5.3) 460

17.7 Digital representation of the preserved bases of mounds dating to c. 7,000­6,400 years ago (from T.P. Denham and S. Haberle, ‘Agricultural emergence and transformation in the upper Wahgi valley, Papua New Guinea, during the Holocene: theory, method and practice', The Holocene, 18 (2008),

fig. 5) 463

17.8 Plans of the oldest ditch networks exposed in excavation at Kuk 465

18.1 Cattle burial from basal levels at Karkarichinkat Nord, Mali, c. 2600 bce (photo © Kat Manning, reproduced with permission) 476

18.2 SEM image of the domestic pearl millet rachis and involucre from Er Neg, lower Tilemsi valley, Mali, c. 2000 bce (photo © Kat Manning, reproduced with permission) 478

18.3 In situ andesite grinding stone associated with carbonized barley seeds (in burned soil and charcoal below) from the Ancient Ona Culture site of Ona Gudo, Asmara plateau, Eritrea, c. 800-400 bce (photo © Matthew Curtis, reproduced with permission) 480

18.4 Lothagam West (GeJi10) Pastoral Neolithic pillar site, West Turkana, Kenya (photo © Elisabeth Hildebrand, reproduced with permission) 481

18.5 Ol Ngoroi rock shelter, Lolldaiga hills, Kenya (photo © PaulJ. Lane) 482

18.6 Terracotta ‘cigars' from Birimi, Ghana - this artefact form is especially diagnostic of the Kintampo culture (photo ©Joanna Casey, reproduced with permission) 485

18.7 Example of a Pastoral Neolithic stone bowl, from site GvJh73, central Rift Valley, Kenya (photo © Stanley Ambrose, reproduced with permission) 486

18.8 In situ Urewe hemispherical bowl and dimple-based pot from site LOL-13, Lolui Island, Uganda (photo © Oli Bolies, reproduced with permission) 488

18.9 View across early herder settlement areas, Kasteelberg Hill, South Africa (photo © Karim Sadr, reproduced with permission) 493

19.1 The Tichitt tradition: a regional map 500

19.2 The pre-Tichitt site of Bou Bteiah, situated on a rocky outcrop within a vast plain - ideal for monitoring herds or wild game movements (photo by

K. MacDonald) 501

19.3 Excavations at Djiganyai in 2000 (photo by K. MacDonald) 502

19.4 Pre-Tichitt to Tichitt lithics from the sequence at Djiganyai (illustration by R. Vernet and K. MacDonald) 503

19.5 Domestic millet impressions in a Tichitt tradition potsherd (photo by

K. MacDonald) 504

19.6 Plan of Dakhlet el Atrouss-I (courtesy of R. Vernet) 508

19.7 Classic Tichitt rim forms from Ndondi Tossokel, in the middle Niger 511

20.1 Likely areas of origin for selected crops of the Americas 515

20.2 Drawing of a foot-plough by Felipe Guaman Poma from his El Primer Nueva Coronica y Buen Gobierno (Werner Forman Archive/Bridgeman Images) 531

21.1 Location map of the Nanchoc valley in Peru 541

21.2 The location of Las Pircas sites on the alluvial fans of the Nanchoc valley 543

21.3 Schematic drawing of Paijan house remains dated around

10,000 bp 545

21.4 The remains of an excavated Las Pircas house 546

21.5 The foundation of a rectangular-shaped Tierra Blanca house form 546

21.6 Outline of the two mounds at the Cementerio de Nanchoc site 547

21.7 Coca leaves excavated from a Tierra Blanca house floor 547

22.1 Reconstruction of the Alpine Iceman, dated to the later fourth millennium cal b c e (after M. Egg and K. Spindler, Kleidung und Ausrustung der Gletschermumie aus den Otztaler Alpen (Mainz: Verlag des Romisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, 2009)) 558

22.2 Houses of the Lengyel culture at Alsonyek-Bataszek, Hungary, dating to the earlier fifth millennium cal bce (after A. Osztas et al., ‘ Alsonyek-Bataszek: a new chapter in research of the Lengyel Culture', Documenta Praehistorica, 39

(2012)) 559

22.3 The section excavated by Miloje Vasic at the tell ofVinca-Belo Brdo, in 1933 (photo courtesy of Nenad Tasic) 560

22.4 A portion of the burial ground at Tiszapolgar-Basatanya (after I. Bognar-Kutzian, The Copper Age Cemetery of Tiszapolgar-Basatanya (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1963)) 560

22.5 Varieties of houses in the Alpine foreland (after R. Ebersbach, ‘Houses, households, and settlements: architecture and living spaces', in F. Menotti and A. O'Sullivan (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Wetland Archaeology (Oxford University Press, 2013), 283-301) 562

22.6 Reconstruction of the causewayed enclosure at Whitehawk, Sussex (drawing by Ian Dennis) 563

22.7 The monument complex at Locmariaquer, Morbihan, Brittany, including the Er Grah long cairn, stone row with the fallen Grand Menhir Brise, and the passage grave of La Table des Marchands (after S. Cassen (ed.), Autour de la Table: explorations archeologiques et discours savants sur des architectures megalithiques a Locmariaquer, Morbihan (Table des Marchands et Grand Menhir) (Nantes: Laboratoire de recherches archeologiques, CNRS, and Universite de Nantes, 2009)) 564

22.8 One of the boulders high in the western Italian Alps from which jadeitite axes were quarried: a block of rough jadeitite, at Vallone Porco, at 2,400 m above sea level; Mont Viso is in the background (photo by Pierre Petrequin/ CRAVA) 575

23.1 Map of Linear Pottery settlement near Brzesc Kujawski 592

23.2 Linear Pottery structure near BrzeSc Kujawski 3/4 594

23.3 Linear Pottery vessel from Falborz 595

23.4 Map of sites of the Brzesc Kujawski Group near Brzesc Kujawski 598

23.5 Excavation plan of the Brzesc Kujawski Group settlement at Osonki 599

23.6 Houses and other features of the BrzesC Kujawski Group at Miechowice 600

23.7 Burial of the Brzesc Kujawski Group with copper artefacts at Osonki 603

23.8 Multiple burial with victims of violence at Osonki 606

23.9 Antler ‘T-axe' of the Brzesc Kujawski Group from Osonki 609