19 HAJJ
Maryam Palizban
The annual pilgrimage of the hajj comprises three different types of ritual—Tamattu’ (minor: ‘umra), Qiran, and Ifrad (Naraqi, Mustanad al-Shi‘a, vol. 11, p. 208).
The latter two are reserved for Muslims living in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, while the first, Tamattu’, is what is normally thought of as the hajj, a practice that is considered to be among the five pillars of Islam for Sunnis, one of the so-called ancillaries of the faith for Shi ‘a, and one of the seven pillars for Isma ‘ilism, a branch of Shi ‘a Islam. Although regarded as obligatory for the faithful, the hajj is only supposed to be performed by those Muslims who are healthy in mind and body, mature, and able to afford the expense of traveling there (Quran 6:25—37; Hadith; Hamedani, 1983, p. 145). Muslims are instructed to travel to Mecca during the first ten days of the last month of the Islamic calendar (dhu al-Hijjah) to join other pilgrims from around the world at least once in a lifetime. The hajj begins on the 8th of dhu al-Hijjah and ends on the 13th of the same month.Prior to starting the hajj, pilgrims don white irham clothing, which is identical for both men and women. This is an important first step in the hajj since it symbolizes absolute equality and anonymity within the Muslim community. The act of undressing and putting on special clothing marks an attempt to usher believers into a new epistemological state, one in which they are reminded of a forgotten past, whether it be birth or pre-existence (anamnesis). Ihram should be donned no later than when the pilgrim is approximately six miles from reaching Mecca (Hadith; Hoiberg and Ramchandani, 2000, pp. 237-238).
The first ritual is tawaf, which involves walking seven times around the Ka'ba, the huge cube in the middle of the Great Mosque yard in Mecca. Pilgrims must perform tawaf at least twice.
This first ritual of reenactment is supposed to be connected to Abraham (Ibrahim) and the Abrahamic religions. Specifically, it reenacts the way in which Abraham worshipped God, with God in the center and his creatures circling around a single creator, both literally and metaphorically. However, the pre-Islamic role of Ka'ba and Mecca indicates that the history of hajj, and specifically tawaf, draw on other, earlier traditions. Prior to the rise of Islam, Ka'ba was a holy place for pagan practices, and the cube form is known to have been widespread in the region (King, 2004, pp. 227-228). Sometime before Muhammad was born in the city, the statue of Hubal, the main idol in Mecca, was placed inside Ka ‘ba along with other sculptures and paintings (King, 2004, p. 219). In addition to elements of fetishism, including kissing and touching the holy black stone attached to Ka'ba, there are early reports that fertility rituals and female deity worship formed part of the history of Ka'ba and the reenactment of tawaf (Ibn Ishaq, 1955, p. 38). Yet, according to the Islamic narrative, mostly derived from the Quran, Ka‘ba was built as the house of God by Abraham and his son Ishmael (Isma'il), and the black stone that is attached to Ka‘ba was delivered by the angel Gabriel (JibraII) from heaven (Quran, 2:124—127 and 22:27—30).The hajj can be considered a historical reenactment in the sense that pilgrims imaginatively believe that they are retracing the footsteps of Abraham—the father of the faith—and of the prophet Mohammad, who established the hajj as the most important social ritual within Islam. The significance of Mecca derives not only from the centrality of the hajj and Ka‘ba in Islam; Mecca was the birthplace of Mohammad and his first revelation in ad 610 is said to have occurred in a cave on a mountain near Mecca (Quran, 53:4—9). Moreover, Ka‘ba in Mecca was decreed the second qibla (fixed direction of praying, after al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem), which unites the physical orientation of Muslims all over the world during their daily prayers.
The decision was made in ad 642 and is narrated in Quran verses 2:142—151.Continuing in Abraham’s footsteps, after tawaf, pilgrims experience the emotional high point of the hajj when they perform Sa'y. This is a reenactment of Abraham’s wife and Ishmael’s mother Hagar’s (Hajar) tragic search for water for her infant, as she runs helplessly between two hills (Safa and Marwa). For many pilgrims, this is the essential moment that de/reconstructs the foundations of their individual faith. The act challenges the strength of the believer’s faith, as it places them in a desperate position that makes them question whether God is looking after them or not. At the same time, it reconstructs the foundation of the believer’s faith by reenacting a fundamental experience—one of Abraham’s most important challenges as a founder of the faith. Many clerics have even stated that pilgrims should cry while reenacting the Sa,γ; crying is Mustahabb (“recommended”) (Sistani, 1993).
According to the story of Hagar, water suddenly flowed from the ground after she had run seven times between the hills searching for it; the spring was subsequently named the Well of Zamzam (Hadith). Having reenacted Hagar’s struggle, the pilgrims drink from Zamzam. Today, the entire area between the two hills has been covered and is constantly air-conditioned. After reenacting Sa'y, all pilgrims enter the Mina area, which is covered with a large number of tents, and where they remain until the following day. Mina is an occasion to talk with other Muslims from all over the world and so to constitute Muslim community (Bianchi, 2004). The 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah sees an immense gathering of millions of the faithful on Mount Arafat. This massive event is supposed to be a reenactment of a historical occurrence—the last sermon given by Mohammad. At the same time, the atmosphere and all the signs suggest apocalyptic narratives: uniformly dressed in the same type of clothing, people gather in an almost empty field, praying and asking for forgiveness.
This act, referred to as wuquf, means “standing before God.” After sunset, all pilgrims are instructed to leave Arafat.After leaving Mount Arafat and spending a night in the Muzdalifah area, the pilgrims prepare themselves for a two-part reenactment of Abraham’s story—the challenge of sacrifice. The first part takes place as the pilgrims throw seven small stones at the highest of three pillars, which represents the devil on the day when Abraham was ordered by God to sacrifice his son Ishmael (jamarat). According to Abraham’s story, the Sat appeared three times (the first time to Abraham, the second time to Hagar, and the third to Ishmael) to prevent Abraham from sacrificing his son (Hadith). As an aspect of the symbolism and meaning of ritual, reenactment can be seen not only as a repetition of actions, but also as a re-experiencing of familiar emotions and memories. Stoning the devil is intended to reenact Abraham’s fight with the devil himself; but at the same time, it symbolizes the individual’s confrontation with their own despair and faith.
The last part of the ritual, an animal sacrifice, reenacts the victory of Abraham’s faith, with the sacrifice of a goat or sheep in place of Ishmael. The sacrificial festival is not only celebrated in Mecca during hajj, but by Muslims all over the world (‘Id al-adha). After the animal sacrifice, the
Hajj
pilgrims demonstrate that they have completed the hajj by men shaving their hair and women cutting the ends of their hair. The following two or three days consist of repeating some of the rituals, such as tawaf, Sa'y, and stoning the devil (stoning all three pillars).
The hajj may thus be thought of as a reenactment of a number of rituals that derive from stories about the Islamic prophet Mohammad, the Abrahamic religions, and from earlier pagan (non-Abrahamic religious) practices. The hajj is a reenactment in two different senses: it is both a reenactment of historical events and a reenactment of memory. Yet there are other forms of reenactment constantly being added to the hajj. The representation of political empowerment related to conflicts in the Islamic world—mainly between Sunni Islam and other traditions, especially Shi'a Islam—has become a central issue in the annual hajj.
Thus, while its founders used the hajj to demonstrate the unity and solidarity of the Muslim world, modern political factors undermine these aims in many ways. The domination of the Saudi Arabian government in Mecca poses serious issues for the neutrality of the hajj as an existential ritual of faith.
Further reading
Agnew, V, 2004; Momen, M., 1985; Sturken, M., 2011; Wustenfeld, F., 1861.