NOTES

Introduction

1. Marion Reid, A Plea for Woman (Edinburgh, 1843; this edition Edinburgh, 1988), p.29.

2. Ibid., pp.90-1.

3. J.F. McCaffrey, Scotland in the Nineteenth Century (Basingstoke, 1998), p.116.

4. Maιte Albistur quoted in G. Bock, “Women’s history and gender history: aspects of an international debate’, Gender and History 1 (1989), pp.7—30, here p.7.

5. See T. Hareven, ‘Family time and historical time’, Daedelus 106 (1977), pp.57—70.

6. O. Hufton, The Prospect Before Her. A History ofWomen in Western Europe, Vol. 1, 1500­1800 (London, 1997); Bonnie G. Smith, Changing Lives. Women in European History since 1700 (Lexington, MA, 1989).

7. Amanda Vickery, ‘Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women’s history’, Historical Journal 36 (1993), pp.383—414.

8. Judith M. Bennett, ‘Confronting continuity’, Journal of Women’s History 9 (1997), pp.73—92, here p.76.

9. Ibid., p.83.

10. Hufton, The Prospect Before Her, p.488.

11. Hufton, “Women in history: early modern Europe’, Past and Present 101 (1983), pp.125—41.

12. Bennett, ‘Confronting continuity’, p.78.

13. Amanda Vickery, The Gentleman’s Daughter. Women’s Lives in Georgian England (New Haven and London, 1998), Introduction.

14. J.W. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), p.48.

15. G. Pomata, ‘History particular and universal: on reading some recent women’s history textbooks’, Feminist Studies 19 (1993), pp.7—50, here p.42.

16. Maxine Berg, “What difference did women’s work make to the industrial revolu­tion?’, History Workshop Journal 35 (1993), pp.22—44.

Chapter 1: Body, Mind and Spirit

1. Jane Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism (Basingstoke, 1985), p.7.

2. On salon culture see Dena Goodman, ‘Enlightenment salons: the convergence of female and philosophic ambitions’, Eighteenth Century Studies 22 (1989), pp.329— 50.

3. Dena Goodman, ‘Women and the Enlightenment’, in R. Bridenthal, S. Stuard and M. Wiesner, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History (3rd edn, Boston, MA, 1998), pp.233—64, here p.242.

4. Madame de Beaumer quoted in Karen Offen, European Feminisms 1700-1950: A Political History (Stanford, CA, 2000), p.39.

5. Margaret Ives, ‘In praise of marriage: reflections on a poem by Gabrielle Baumberg (1766—1839)’, in Women Writers in the Age of Goethe, Vol. VII (Lancaster, 1995), pp.3—17.

6. Patricia Meyer Spacks, ed., Selections from the Female Spectator by Eliza Haywood (Ox­ford, 1999), pp.123-4.

7. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile (orig. 1762; London, 1993), p.388.

8. Quoted in Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil. Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London, 1994), p.191.

9. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge MA, 1995), p.150.

10. See Michel Foucault, A History of Sexuality: An Introduction (Harmondsworth, 1978).

11. Galen quoted in Thomas Laqueur, ‘Orgasm, generation, and the politics of repro­ductive biology’, in R. Shoemaker and M. Vincent, eds., Gender and History in Western Europe (London, 1998), pp.111-48, here p.115.

12. C. Bauhin (1605) quoted in Laqueur, ‘Orgasm’, pp.122—3.

13. Anthony Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination in England 1500—1800 (New Haven, CT, 1995), p.71.

14. See Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Harvard, 1989).

15. Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine Between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London, 1989), p.40.

16. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, ‘Women and the Enlightenment’, in R. Bridenthal, C. Koonz and S. Stuard, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History (2nd edn, Boston, 1987), pp.251—77, here p.268.

17. Barbara Duden, The Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctors Patients in Eighteenth Century Germany (London and Cambridge, MA, 1991), p.20.

18. Barbara Duden, DerFrauenleib als offentliche Ort (Hamburg and Zurich 1991), translated as Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn (Cambridge, MA, 1993).

19. Jane Ussher, Women’s Madness. Misogyny or Mental Illness? (London 1991), p.69.

20. Quoted in Janet Beizer, Ventriloquized Bodies: Narratives of Hysteria in Nineteenth Century France (London, 1994), p.37.

21. Michelet quoted in Patricia Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman (Manchester, 1990), p.49.

22. Ibid.

23. Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, For Her Own Good:150 Years of the Experts’ Advice to Women (London, 1979), p.94.

24. Dr Barnes quoted in Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman, p.91.

25. Quoted ibid., p.62, note 41.

26. Quoted in Beizer, Ventriloquized Bodies, p.49.

27. The reference to over-exalted dreams is drawn from the experience of Emma Bovary in Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary (1856—57).

28. On the rest cure see Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Yellow Wallpaper (orig. 1899; New York, 1973).

29. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (London, 1987), p.128.

30. See Ruth Harris, Murders and Madness. Medicine, Law and Society in the Fin de Siecle (Oxford, 1989).

31. Ornella Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynaecology and Gender in England 1800-1929 (Cambridge, 1990).

32. Isaac Baker Brown (1866) in Sheila Jeffreys, ed., The Sexuality Debates (London, 1987), pp.16-17.

33. Quoted in Ehrenreich and English, For Her Own Good, p.112.

34. Roper, Oedipus and the Devil, p.17.

35. Kathleen Canning, ‘Feminist history after the linguistic turn: historicizing discourse and experience', Signs 19 (1994), pp.368—404, here pp.385—6.

36. Quoted in Edward Shorter, Women’s Bodies: A Social History of Women’s Encounter with Health, Ill-health, and Medicine (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991), p.287.

37. Ulinka Rublack, ‘The public body: policing abortion in early modern Germany', in L. Abrams and E. Harvey, eds., Gender Relations in German History: Power, Agency and Experience from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century (London, 1996), pp.57—79.

38. See Lindsay Wilson, Women and Medicine in the French Enlightenment: The Debate over ‘Maladies des Femmes’ (Baltimore, 1993).

39. Isabel Hull, ‘The body as historical experience; review of recent works by Barbara Duden', Central European History 28 (1995), pp.73—9, here p.74.

40. Shetland Archives: AD 22/2/38/42, Precognition, Robina Ritch or Pennant, 14 June 1903.

41. See Catherine Fouquet, ‘The unavoidable detour: must a history of women begin with the history of their bodies?', in M. Perrot, ed., Writing Women’s History (Oxford, 1984), pp.51—60.

42. Stephen Wilson, The Magical Universe. Everyday Ritual and Magic in Pre-modern Europe (London, 2000), pp.156—60.

43. Quoted in Shorter, Women’s Bodies, p.104.

44. David Cressy, Birth, Marriage and Death. Ritual, Religion, and the Life-cycle in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford, 1997), pp.197—229; Wilson, The Magycal Universe, pp.253—7.

45. Shorter, Women’s Bodies, p.239.

46. Rousseau, Emile, p.385.

47. Quoted in Roper, Oedipus and the Devil, p.19.

48. Gervase Markham, The English Housewife, ed. M. Best (orig.1615; Montreal, 1986), p.8. The Day Star, 1855.

49. Free Church Magazine (1844).

50. The Day Star, Vol. X (1854), pp.301—5.

51. Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (orig. 1792; London, 1985), p.68.

52. Rousseau, Emile, p.393.

53. Wollstonecraft, Vindication, p.69.

54. Ibid., pp.181—2.

55. Ibid., p.69.

56. Tombstone in North Walsham parish church, Norfolk, England.

57. Quoted in Lee Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes. Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (London, 1987), p.114.

58. Marina Warner, Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary (London, 1976), pp.334-5.

59. John Angell James quoted in Hugh McLeod, Religion and Society in England 1850­1914 (Basingstoke, 1996), p.161.

60. Barbara Welter, ‘The cult of true womanhood: 1820-1860', American Quarterly 18 (1966), pp.151-74.

61.

62. G. Malmgreen, ed., Religion in the Lives of English Women 1760—1930 (London, 1986), p.3.

63. Quoted in Heide Wunder, ‘Gender norms and their enforcement in early modern Germany', in Abrams and Harvey, eds., Gender Relations in German History, pp.39—56, here p.42.

64. Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination, p.363.

65. Hugh McLeod, Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789—1989 (Oxford, 1997), p.28.

66. Ralph Gibson, A Social History of French Catholicism 1789—1914 (London, 1989), pp.180-1.

67. Hugh McLeod, Piety and Poverty: Working-class Religion in London, Berlin and New York 1870—1914 (New York, 1996), p.163.

68. Callum G. Brown, The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation 1800­2000 (London, 2000), p.156.

69. McLeod, Piety and Poverty, pp.158-64.

70. Pirjo Markkola, ‘Introduction: the Lutheran context of Nordic women's history', in Markkola, ed., Gender and Vocation. Women, Religion and Social Change in the Nordic Countries, 1830-1940 (Helsinki, 2000), pp.9-25, here pp.16-17.

71. McLeod, Piety and Poverty, p.162.

72. Bonnie Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class: The Bourgeoisie of Northern France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1981), pp.99-101.

73. Gibson, Social History of French Catholicism, p.153.

74. David Blackbourn, The Marpingen Visions. Rationalism. Religion and the Rise of Modern Germany (London 1995), p.28.

75. Gibson, Social History of French Catholicism, pp.146-7.

76. Blackbourn, Marpingen Visions, pp.293-5.

77. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, pp.95-6.

78. Deborah Valenze, Prophetic Sons and Daughters: Female Preaching and Popular Religion in Industrial England (Princeton, NJ, 1985), p.9.

79. Anna Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (London, 1995), pp.108-9.

80. E. Baumann (1880) quoted in McLeod, Piety and Poverty, pp.165-6.

81. See Callum G. Brown, Religion and Society in Scotland since 1707 (Edinburgh, 1997), pp.196-8.

82. Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.73.

83. Gibson, Social History of French Catholicism, pp.106-7.

84. Quoted in McLeod, Religion and Society in England, p.161.

85. Catherine M. Prelinger, ‘Prelude to consciousness. Amalie Sieveking and the Female Association for the Care of the Poor and the Sick', in J. Fout, ed., German Women in the Nineteenth Century: A Social History (New York and London, 1984), pp.118—32.

86. See Judith Rowbotham, ‘ “Soldiers of Christ”? Images of female missionaries in late nineteenth-century Britain: issues of heroism and martyrdom', Gender and History 12 (2000), pp.82-106.

87. H. Goldschmidt cited in Ann Taylor Allen, Feminism and Motherhood in Germany 1800—1914 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1991), p.95.

88. Rev. Binney quoted in Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.118.

Chapter 2: Learning to be a Woman

1. Merry E.Wiesner, ‘Guilds, male bonding and women's work in early modern Ger­many', in M.E. Wiesner, Gender, Church and State in Early Modern Germany (London, 1998), pp.163-77, here p.168.

2. Wunder, ‘Gender norms and their enforcement', p.43.

3. L. Davidoff, ‘Catching the greased pig: domesticity and feminist history', in A. Peto and M. Pittaway, eds., Women in History - Women’s History: Central and Eastern Euro­pean Perspectives (Budapest, 1994), pp.11—19, here p.14.

4. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, p.17.

5. A. Clark, review of Vickery, The Gentleman’s Daughter, in Reviews in History, www.ihrinfo.ac.uk/reviews (1998).

6. Rousseau, Emile, p.399.

7. See Barbara Corrado Pope, ‘The influence of Rousseau's ideology of domesticity', in M.J. Boxer and J.H. Quataert, eds., Connecting Spheres. European Women in a Globaliz­ing World (Oxford, 1987), pp.136—43, here p.143.

8. In U. Frevert, Women in German History. From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Libera­tion (Oxford, 1989), p.34.

9. C.M. Wieland, ‘Die ideale Gattin', in A. van Dulmen, ed., Frauen: Ein historisches Lesebuch (Munich, 1995), p.90.

10. Ibid.

11. The General Baptist Repository and Missionary Observer, February 1840, No.14, p.34.

12. Catherine Hall, ‘The early formation of Victorian domestic ideology', in Shoemaker and Vincent, eds., Gender and History in Western Europe, pp.181—96.

13. More, ‘Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education' (1799), in S.G. Bell and K.M. Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1 (Stanford, CA, 1983), p.88.

14. S. Stickney Ellis, ‘The Wives of England' (1843), ibid., pp.193—4.

15. Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.115.

16. Pirjo Markkola, ‘The calling of women: gender, religion and social reform in Finland, 1860—1920', in Markkola, ed., Gender and Vocation, pp.113—45.

17. Vicomte de Bonald, ‘De l'education des femmes' (1802), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.90—1.

18. Rev. John Gregg, ‘Women: A lecture delivered in Trinity Church' (1856), in M. Luddy, ed., Women in Ireland 1800-1918 (Cork, 1995), p.14.

19. S. La Roche, ‘Tageslauf', in van Dulmen, ed., Frauen, pp.107—8. See also Frevert, Women in German History, p.50.

20. S. Meyer, ‘The tiresome work of conspicuous leisure: on the domestic duties of the wives of civil servants in the German Empire (1871—1918)', in Boxer and Quataert, eds., Connecting Spheres (2nd edn, Oxford, 2000), pp.185—93.

21. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.178.

22. L’Atelier (1844) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.230-1.

23. Staatsarchiv Hamburg: N 1729, 1860; P II B 542, 19 Jan. 1860. See Lynn Abrams, ‘Restabilisierung der Geschlechterverhaltnisse: Die Konstruktion und Representation von Mannlichkeit und Weiblichkeit in Scheidungsprozessen des 19. Jahrhunderts', Wesfdlische Forschungen 45 (1995), pp.9—25.

24. Patriot (1804) quoted in J. Tovrov, ‘Mother-child relationships among the Russian nobility', in D.L. Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia (Urbana, IL, 1976), pp.15— 43, here p.34.

25. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, pp.166—7.

26. Barbara Caine, Destined to be Wives. The Sisters of Beatrice Webb (Oxford, 1986), p.31.

27. See Carole Dyhouse, ‘Mothers and daughters in the middle-class home, c.1870— 1914', in Jane Lewis, ed., Labour and Love (Oxford, 1986), pp.38—40.

28. K. Milde, ‘Der deutschen Jungfrau Wesen und Wirken' (1888), quoted in I. Schraub, Zwischen Salon und Mddchenkammer. Frauen in Biedermeier und Kaiseryeit (Hamburg, 1992), p.32.

29. Braun quoted in Y. Schutze, ‘Mutterliebe—Vaterliebe. Elternrolle in der burgerlichen Familie des 19. Jahrhunderts', in U. Frevert, ed., Burgerinnen und Burger (Gottingen, 1988), pp.118—33, here p.125.

30. Power Cobbe, ‘The Duties of Women' (1881), quoted in John Gillis, A World of Their Own Making. A History of Myth and Ritual in Family Life (Oxford, 1997), p.123.

31. Quoted ibid., p.125.

32. Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London 1870-1918 (Oxford, 1993); Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London 1870-1914 (London, 1996).

33. Colin Heywood, ‘On learning gender roles during childhood in nineteenth century France', French History 5 (1991), pp.451—66, here pp.459—60.

34. Quoted in John Burnett, ed., Destiny Obscure. Autobiographies of Childhood, Education and Family from the 1820s to the 1920s (London, 1982), p.226.

35. Quoted in John Fout, The woman's role in the German working-class family in the 1890s from the perspective of women's autobiographies', in Fout, ed., German Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York and London, 1984), pp.295—319, here p.311.

36. Ross, Love and Toil, p.154.

37. Ellen Ross, ‘Survival networks: women's neighbourhood sharing in London before World War One', History Workshop Journal 15 (1983), pp.4—27.

38. Hogg, ‘Schoolchildren as wage earners' (1897), quoted in Davin, Growing Up Poor, p.173.

39. Lynn Jamieson, ‘Limited resources and limiting conventions: working-class mothers and daughters in urban Scotland c.1890—1925', in Lewis, ed., Labour and Love, pp.49—69.

40. Lynn Jamieson and Clare Toynbee, Country Bairns: Growing Up 1900—1930 (Edinburgh, 1992).

41. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, p.168.

42. Quoted in Pat Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics, 1860—1914 (Oxford, 1986), p.12.

43. Quoted in Barbara Alpern Engel, ‘Mothers and daughters: family patterns and the female intelligentsia’, in Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia, pp.44—59, here p.51.

44. Quoted in Frevert, Women in German History, p-34.

45. Renate Mohrmann, ed., Frauenemanyipation im deutschen Vormary (Stuttgart, 1978), p.15; Frevert, Women in German History, p.36.

46. Quoted in Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics, p.12.

47. Wollstonecraft, Vindication, p.32.

48. Ibid., p.164.

49. Aime-Martin in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.166.

50. Hamilton, ‘Letters on the Elementary Principles of Education’ (1803), quoted in Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.111.

51. Napoleon I (1807), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.95.

52. Quoted in James C. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls and Women: Secondary and Higher Education in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1988), pp.6, 13.

53. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, p.12; Sharif Gemie, Women and Schooling in France, 1815-1914. Gender, Authority and Identity in the Female Schooling Sector (Keele, 1995), pp.60—7.

54. Quoted in D. Ladj-Teichmann, ‘Weibliche Bildung im 19. Jahrhundert: Fesselung von Kopf, Hand und Herz?’, in I. Brehmer et al, eds., Frauen in der Geschichte IV (Dusseldorf, 1983), p.229.

55. S. Alberg, ‘Briefe uber Madchenbilding’ (1852), in Brehmer et al, eds., Frauen in der Geschichte, p.230.

56. Quoted in Danuta Rzepniewska, ‘Women of the landowning class in the Polish Kingdom in the 19th century’, Acta Poloniae Historica 74 (1996), pp.97—120, here pp.100-1.

57. Laura S. Strumingher, ‘L’ange de la maison. Mothers and daughters in nineteenth century France’, International Journal of Women’s Studies 2 (1979), pp.51-61, here p.54.

58. Francinet (1869) cited in Laura S. Strumingher, What were Little Girls and Boys Made of? Primary Education in Rural France, 1830-1880 (Albany, NY,1983), p.28.

59. Elisabeth Meyer-Renschhausen, Weibliche Kultur undSoyialer Arbeit: eine Geschichte der Frauenbewegung am BeispielBremens 1810-1927 (Cologne, 1989), pp.20-1.

60. Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, pp.32-3.

61. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp.18-20.

62. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, pp.289-93.

63. Quoted in Gemie, Women and Schooling in France, p.76.

64. Quoted in Linda L. Clark, ‘The primary education of French girls: pedagogical pre­scriptions and social realities, 1880-1940’, History of Education Quarterly 21 (1981), pp.411-28, here p.411.

65. ‘Reading Book for the Use of Female Schools’ (Dublin, 1846), in Luddy, Women in Ireland, pp.98-9.

66. Carol Dyhouse, Girls Growing Up in Late Victorian and Edwardian England (London, 1981), p.83.

67. See Annemarie Turnbull, ‘Learning her womanly work: the elementary school curriculum, 1870—1914', in F. Hunt, ed., Lessons for Life: The Schooling of Girls and Women, 1850—1950 (Oxford, 1987), pp.83—100, here pp.88—92.

68. E. Sellers (1911) quoted in Carol Dyhouse, ‘Towards a “feminine” curriculum for English schoolgirls: the demands of ideology 1870—1963', Women’s Studies Interna­tional Quarterly 1 (1978), pp.297—311, here p.300.

69. Elizabeth Roberts, ‘Learning and living — socialisation outside school', Oral History 3 (1975), p.14-28.

70. Linda L. Clark, ‘The socialization of girls in the primary schools of the Third Republic', Journal of Social History 15 (1981-2), pp.685—97, here p. 690.

71. Tod, ‘On the education of girls of the middle classes' (1874), in Luddy, Women in Ireland, pp.108—9.

72. Quoted in Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, p.148.

73. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp.99—104.

74. Dyhouse, Girls Growing Up, pp.165—9.

75. S. Mitchell, ‘The forgotten women of the period: penny weekly family magazines of the 1840s and 1850s', in M. Vicinus, ed., A Widening Sphere (Bloomington, IN, 1977), pp.29—51; Margaret Beetham, A Magazine of her Own? Domesticity and Desire in the Woman’s Magazine 1800-1914 (London, 1996).

76. S.R. Williams, ‘The true “Cymraes”: images of women in women's nineteenth century Welsh periodicals', in A.V. John, ed., Our Mothers’ Land: Chapters in Welsh Women’s History, 1830-1939 (Cardiff, 1991), pp.69—92, p.74.

77. Strumingher, What Were Little Girls and Boys Made Of?, pp.49ff.

78. Deborah Gorham, ‘The ideology of femininity and reading for girls, 1850—1914', in Hunt, ed., Lessons for Life, pp.39—59, here pp.43—5; L.L. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne (New York, 1984), pp.46—8.

79. Judith Rowbotham, Good Girls Make Good Wives: Guidance for Girls in Victorian Fiction (Oxford, 1989), ch.1.

80. E. Harvey, ‘Private fantasy and public intervention: girls' reading in Weimar Germany', in J. Birkett and E. Harvey, eds., Determined Women. Studies in the Construc­tion of the Female Subject, 1900-90 (Basingstoke, 1991), pp.38—67, here pp.42—50.

81. Rowbotham, Good Girls make Good Wives, pp.21—2.

82. See Brown, Death of Christian Britain, pp.69—87.

83. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne, p.37.

84. Cowper quoted in Rowbotham, Good Girls make Good Wives, pp.15—17.

85. Gorham, ‘The ideology of femininity', pp.48—52.

86. See Rowbotham, Good Girls Make Good Wives, pp.33—40.

87. D.Grenz, ‘“Das eine sein und das andere auch sein...” Uber die Widerspruchli- chkeit des Frauenbildes am Beispiel der Madchenliteratur', in Brehmer et al., eds., Frauen in der Geschichte, pp.291—2.

88. See J. Jacobi-Dittrich, ‘Growing up female in the nineteenth century', in Fout, ed., German Women in the Nineteenth Century, pp.197—217, here pp.204—5.

89. Strumingher, ‘L'ange de la maison', pp.54—5.

Chapter 3: Marriage

1. Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics, p.47.

2. See Lynn Abrams, ‘The personification of inequality: challenges to gendered power relations in the nineteenth-century divorce court', Archiv fur Soyialgeschichte 38 (1998), pp.41-55.

3. Quoted in Frevert, Women in German History, p.40.

4. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.322.

5. R.J. Evans, ‘Family and class in the Hamburg grande bourgeoisie 1815-1914', in D. Blackbourn and R.J. Evans, eds., The German Bourgeoisie (London, 1991), pp.115-39.

6. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (orig. 1813; Ware, 1992,), p.10.

7. Caine, Destined to be Wtves, p.72.

8. Quoted in P. Borscheid, ‘Romantic love or material interest: choosing marriage partners in nineteenth century Germany', Journal of Family History 11 (1986), pp.157—68, here p.160.

9. L. Aston, ‘Meine Emancipation, Verweisung und Rechtfertigung' (1846), in Mohrmann, ed., Frauenemanyipation im deutschen Vormary, pp.68-9.

10. Staatsarchiv Hamburg: N 1226, 1850; Lynn Abrams, ‘Women writers and the “problem of marriage” in early 19 th century Germany', in Women Writers in the Age of Goethe: VII (Lancaster, 1995), pp.18-31.

11. A.G. Meyer, ‘The radicalization of Lily Braun', in Fout, ed., German Women in the Nineteenth Century, pp.218-33.

12. J. Knodel, ‘Law, marriage and illegitimacy in nineteenth-century Germany', Popula­tion Studies 20 (1967), pp.279-94, here p.282.

13. J. Hajnal, ‘European marriage patterns in perspective', in D.V. Glass and D.E.C. Eversley, eds., Population in History: Essays in Historical Demography (Chicago, 1965), pp.101-43.

14. Martine Segalen, Love and Power in the Peasant Family: Rural France in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1983), p.17.

15. Miriam Cohen, Workshop to Office. Two Generations of Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1950 (Ithaca, NY, 1992), p.20.

16. Borscheid, ‘Romantic love', p.165.

17. John Gillis, For Better, For Worse. British Marriages, 1600 to the Present (Oxford, 1985), pp.113-14.

18. Barbara W. Robertson, ‘In bondage: the female farm worker in south east Scotland', in E. Gordon and E. Breitenbach, eds., The World is Ill Divided (Edinburgh, 1990), pp.117-35.

19. Gillis, For Better, For Worse, pp.121-2.

20. See Gillis, World of Their Own Making, pp.134-51.

21. From the Commonplace book of Mary Young (1828), in Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.397.

22. See Karin Hausen, ‘“...eine Ulme fur das schwanke Efau”. Ehepaare im Bildungsburgertum. Ideale und Wirklichkeiten im spaten 18. und 19. Jahrhundert', in Frevert, ed., Burgerinnen und Burger, pp.85-117. Hausen traces the image to an 1855 publication, Aus dem Frauenleben although it was a common trope in the early decades of the century in England. See Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.325, for another example.

23. Quoted in S. Foster, Victorian Women’s Fiction: Marriage, Freedom and the Individual (London, 1985), p.51.

24. In Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.31.

25. Ibid., pp.39-40.

26. Ibid., p.33.

27. Quoted in Robert Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650—1850 (London, 1998), p.102.

28. Judith Bennett, ‘Medieval women, modern women: across the great divide', in D. Aers, ed., Culture and History 1350-1600: Essays in English Communities, Identities and Writing (London, 1992), pp.147—76, here p.154.

29. A.J. Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in Nineteenth Century Married Life (London, 1992), p.2.

30. See Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination, pp.190—1.

31. See, for example, Nancy Tomes, ‘A “torrent of abuse”: crimes of violence be­tween working-class men and women in London, 1840—1875', Journal of Social History 11 (1978), pp. 328—45; Ellen Ross, ‘“Fierce questions and taunts”: mar­ried life in working-class London, 1870—1914', Feminist Studies 8 (1982), pp.575— 602.

32. Staatsarchiv Hamburg: PII B583: Burmeister, 1850.

33. Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship, pp.83—9.

34. Ibid., p.89.

35. Ibid., p.89. See also the case of Frances and John Curtis described at pp.91—4. John was said by his wife to carry ‘the idea of his authority to a mania'.

36. David W. Sabean, Property, Production and Family in Neckarhausen, 1700-1870 (Cambridge, 1990), pp.166—74.

37. See Lynn Abrams, ‘Whores, whore-chasers and swine: the regulation of sexuality and the restoration of order in the nineteenth-century German divorce court', Journal of Family History 21 (1996), pp.267—80.

38. Hauptstaatsarchiv Dusseldorf: Cleve Landgericht, Rep. 7/254: 6 May 1842.

39. Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship, p.101.

40. Quoted in O. Kenyon, ed., 800 Years of Women’s Letters (Stroud, 1992), p.111.

41. Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience. Victoria to Freud, Vol.1, Education of the Senses (London, 1984), p.458.

42. Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics, p.73.

43. G.E. Jensen, ‘Henriette Schleiermacher. A woman in a traditional role', in Fout, ed., German Women in the Nineteenth Century, pp.88—103.

44. Quoted in Jalland, Women, Marriage and Politics, pp.127—9.

45. Quoted in A-C. Trepp, ‘Gender relations in bourgeois marriages between 1770 and 1850: limits and possibilities', unpublished paper 1997, p.16.

46. Ibid., p.20.

47. James F. McMillan, Housewife or Harlot: The Place of Women in French Society 1870­1940 (Brighton, 1981), p.35.

48. Quoted in Frevert, Women in German History, p.134.

49. Quoted in Trepp, ‘Gender relations’, p.23.

50. L. Davidoff, M. Doolittle, J. Fink and K. Holden, The Family Story: Blood, Contract and Intimacy, 1830—1960 (London, 1998), p.120.

51. E. Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (London, 1977).

52. See J.M. Phayer, Sexual Liberation and Religion in Nineteenth Century Europe (London, 1977).

53. Shetland Archives: SC 12/6/1884/55, 28 Oct. 1884.

54. Shetland Archives: SC 12/6/1867/2, 4 Jan. 1867. For similar cases see Ginger

S. Frost, Promises Broken. Courtship, Class and Gender in Victorian England (Charlottesville, VA, 1995).

55. Quoted in Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.65.

56. Staatsarchiv Hamburg: P II, B 235: Berott, 1845/6.

57. Leah Leneman, Alienated Affections: the Scottish Experience of Divorce and Separation, 1684-1830 (Edinburgh, 1998), p.13.

58. Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Deutsche Reich 28 (1907), p.22; 42 (1921-2), p.48.

59. Lawrence Stone, Road to Divorce. England 1530-1987 (Oxford, 1990), p.435, table 13.1.

60. Thomas Erskine quoted in Stone, Road to Divorce, p.231.

61. Staatsarchiv Hamburg: P II C 73: 2 May 1835.

62. D.A. Kent, ‘“Gone for a Soldier”: Family breakdown and the demography of desertion in a London parish, 1750-91’, Local Population Studies 45 (1990), pp.27—42.

63. Roderick Phillips, Untying the Knot: A Short History of Divorce (Cambridge, 1991), p.172.

64. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.70.

65. Ibid., p.71.

66. Hauptstaatsarchiv Dusseldorf: Cleve Landgericht, Rep. 7/225: 7 May 1853.

67. See Abrams, ‘Whores, whore-chasers and swine’; Sabean, Property, Production and Family, pp.124—46.

68. S. Mohle, Ehekonflikte und soyialer Wandel. Gottingen 1740-1840 (Frankfurt-am- Main, 1997).

69. Clarke, Struggle for the Breeches, p.79.

70. Regina Wecker, Zwischen Okonomie und Ideologie: Arbeit im Lebensyusammenhang von Frauen im Kanton Basel-Stadt 1870-1910 (Zurich, 1997), pp.228—92. See also Lynn Abrams, ‘Martyrs or matriarchs? Working-class women’s experience of marriage in Germany before the First World War’, Women’s History Review 1 (1992), pp.357—76.

71. Ross, ‘Fierce questions and taunts’, pp.575—6.

72. Maryanne Kowaleski, ‘Singlewomen in medieval and early modern Europe. The demographic perspective’, in J.M. Bennett and A.M. Froide, eds., Singlewomen in the European Past 1250-1800 (Philadelphia, 1999), pp.38—81, here pp.52—3.

73. Olwen Hufton, ‘Women without men: widows and spinsters in Britain and France in the eighteenth century’, Journal of Family History 9 (1984)’, pp.355—76, here p.358.

74. Slater quoted in Pamela Sharpe, ‘Dealing with love: the ambiguous independence of the single woman in early modern England’, Gender and History 11 (1999), pp.209—32, here p.210.

75. Hufton, ‘Women without men', p.356.

76. Quoted in A.M. Froide, ‘Marital status as a category of difference. Singlewomen and widows in early modern England', in Bennett and Froide, eds., Singkwomen, pp.236—69, here p.236.

77. See Martha Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women 1850­1920 (London, 1985); Davidoff et al, The Family Story, pp.221—43.

78. Margaret R. Hunt, ‘The sapphic strain: English lesbians in the long eighteenth century', in Bennett and Froide, eds., Singlewomen, pp.270—96, here pp.277—80.

79. Vicinus, Independent Women, pp.3-4.

80. Quoted ibid., p.13.

81. Girl’s Own Paper, 10 July 1886, p.644.

82. Joanna Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery. Women, Economic Change, and Housework in Ireland, 1890-1914 (Oxford, 1993).

83. Hufton, ‘Women without men', p.361.

84. Richard Wall, ‘The residence patterns of elderly English women in comparative perspective', in L. Botelho and P. Thane, eds., Women and Ageing in British Society since 1500 (London, 2001), pp.139-65, here p.142; Susannah Ottaway, ‘The old woman's home in eighteenth-century England', ibid., pp.111—38, here pp.114—16.

85. E. Gordon and G. Nair, ‘The economic role of middle-class women in Victorian Glasgow', Women’s History Review 9 (2000), pp.791—814, here pp.807—8.

86. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, pp.314—15.

87. Quoted ibid., p.315.

88. Gordon and Nair, ‘Economic role of middle-class women', p.796.

89. L. Gunga, ‘Zimmer frei^,. Berliner Pensionswirtinnen im Kaiserreich (Frankfurt-am- Main, 1995). See also Lee Davidoff, ‘The separation of home and work? Land­ladies and lodgers in nineteenth- and twentieth-century England', in Lee Davidoff, Worlds Between: Historical Perspectives on Gender and Class (Cambridge, 1995), pp.151—77.

90. C.G. Brown, ‘Residential differentiation in nineteenth-century Glasgow', (ESRC Award Report, R00023 2733, 1993), p.29.

91. Davidoff et al., The Family Story, p.222.

92. Alice Jay was the author's great-grandfather's sister.

93. Girls’ Favourite (1927) quoted in Penny Tinkler, ‘Women and popular literature', in J. Purvis, ed., Women’s History: Britain, 1850-1945 (London, 1995), pp.131—56, here p.148.

94. Peter N. Stearns, Old Age in European Society. The Case of France (London, 1977), p.120.

95. Gay L. Gullickson, Spinners and Weavers of Auffay. Rural Industry and the Sexual Division of Labor in a French Village, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1986), p.167.

96. Gillis, For Better, For Worse, p.123.

97. See B. Todd, ‘The remarrying widow: a stereotype reconsidered', in M. Prior, ed., Women in English Society 1500-1800 (London, 1985), pp.54—92; Shoemaker, Gender in English Society, pp.135—40.

98. Natalie Zemon Davis, Women on the Margins. Three Seventeenth Century Lives (Cambridge, MA, 1995), pp.8—15.

99. Gordon and Nair, ‘Economic role of middle-class women', p.805.

100. Pamela Sharpe, ‘Survival strategies and stories: poor widows and widowers in early industrial England’, in S. Cavallo and L. Warner, eds., Widowhood in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (London, 1999), pp.220—39. here p.224.

101. Stearns, Old Age in European Society, p.52.

102. Jill S. Quadagno, Ageing in Early Industrial Society. Work, Family, and Social Policy in Nineteenth-century England (New York, 1982), p.153.

103. P. Bairoch, T. Deldycke, H. Gelders and J.-M. Limbor, The Working Population and its Structure (Brussels, 1968), pp.133, 169, 185. The figures for Germany and Britain include divorced women.

104. Pat Thane, ‘Old women in twentieth-century Britain’, in Botelho and Thane, eds., Women and Ageing, pp.207-31, here p.210.

105. Gullickson, Spinners and Weavers of Auffay, pp.170-3.

106. Sharpe, ‘Survival strategies and stories’, pp.220—39.

107. Shetland Archives: SC 12/6/1891/45, 11 Aug. 1891.

108. Quoted in Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.327.

Chapter 4: Mothers and Children

1. Quoted in A. Martynova, ‘Life of the pre-revolutionary village as reflected in popu­lar lullabies’, in Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia, p.172.

2. See Davidoff et al, The Family Story, pp.221—43.

3. Ross, Love and Toil, p.92.

4. Quoted in Smith, Changing Lives, p.104.

5. Lynn Hunt, The Family Romance of the French Revolution. (Berkeley and London, 1992), pp.89—123.

6. Yvonne M. Ward, ‘The womanly garb of Queen Victoria’s early motherhood, 1840—42’, Women’s History Review 8 (1999), pp.277—94.

7. R. Wortman, ‘The Russian empress as mother’, in Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia, pp.60—74.

8. A. Taylor Gilbert, ‘My Mother’ (1802), quoted in Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.459.

9. Rousseau, Emile, pp.15 and 31.

10. S. Tillyard, Aristocrats. Caroline, Emily, Louisa and Sarah Lennox 1740-1832 (London, 1995), pp.240—8.

11. A. Dally, Inventing Motherhood. The Consequences of an Ideal (London, 1982), p.17.

12. See Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, pp.22—7.

13. Quoted ibid., p.17.

14. Wollstonecraft, Vindication, p.197.

15. Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.42.

16. Ibid., p.47.

17. N.M. Frieden, ‘Child care: medical reform in a traditionalist culture’, in Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia, pp.236—59, here p.249.

18. Caleb Salleby in Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Young Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England 1889-1918 (London, 1987), p.151.

19. Quoted in E. Ross, ‘Good and bad mothers: lady philanthropists and London housewives before World War I', in D.O. Helly and S.M. Reverby, eds., Gendered Domains. Rethinking Public and Private in Women’s History (Ithaca, NY, 1992), pp.199— 216, here p.201.

20. Ross, Love and Toil, p.203.

21. Eileen Janes Yeo, ‘The creation of “motherhood” and women's responses in Britain and France, 1750-1914’, Women’s History Review 8 (1999), pp.201—17, here p.203.

22. Quoted in Ross, Love and Toil, p.197.

23. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, pp.335—8.

24. M. Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Western Family 1500—1914 (Basingstoke, 1980), pp.19—20.

25. Shetland Archives: AD 22/2/28/5, Precognition against Margaret Johnston, 1893.

26. Shetland Archives: AD 22/2/6/4, Precognition against Laura Scott, 1862.

27. M. Llewelyn Davies, ed., Maternity. Letters from Working Women (1915), p.44.

28. Ibid., p.64.

29. Ibid., p.39.

30. Amanda Foreman, Georgiana Duchess of Devonshire (London, 1999), pp.107—8.

31. W.L. Mackenzie, Report on the Physical Welfare of Mothers and Children, Vol. 3, Scotland (Dunfermline, 1917), p.485.

32. Davies, ed., Maternity, pp.22—3.

33. Ibid., p.61.

34. Ibid., p.166.

35. Ibid., p.44.

36. Foreman, Georgiana, caption to plate of Georgiana and Lady Georgiana (n.p.).

37. Ross, Love and Toil, p.102.

38. Davies, ed., Maternity, pp.27— 8.

39. Ibid., p.25.

40. See Rublack, ‘The public body', pp.61—6.

41. Davies, ed., Maternity, p.38.

42. Cressy, Birth, Marriage and Death, p.55.

43. Foreman, Georgiana, pp.121—2.

44. Mackenzie, Report on the Physical Welfare, p.490.

45. I. Loudon, Death in Childbirth. An International Study of Maternal Care and Maternal Mortality 1800—1950 (Oxford, 1992), pp.176—7.

46. Davies, ed., Maternity, p.115.

47. Anne Lokke, ‘The “antiseptic” transformation of Danish midwives, 1860—1920', in H. Marland and A.M. Rafferty, eds., Midwives, Society and Childbirth: Debates and Controversies in the Modern Period (London, 1997), pp.102—33, here pp.110—13.

48. Christina Romlid, ‘Swedish midwives and their instruments in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', in Marland and Rafferty, eds., Midwives, Society and Childbirth, pp.38—60.

49. Frieden, ‘Child care', p.236, n.1.

50. S.C. Ramer, ‘Childbirth and culture: midwifery in the nineteenth-century Russian countryside', in Ransel, ed., The Family in Imperial Russia, pp.218—35.

51. Loudon, Death in Childbirth, p.427.

52. Shorter, History of Women’s Bodies, p.157.

53. Loudon, Death in Childbirth, tables 1 and 9, appendix 6, pp.542—3, 555—6. See also Hilary Marland, ‘The midwife as health missionary: the reform of Dutch childbirth practices in the early twentieth century', in Marland and Rafferty, eds., Midwives, Society and Childbirth, pp.153-79.

54. Loudon, Death in Childbirth, pp.221—2.

55. Lokke, ‘The “antiseptic” transformation of Danish midwives', pp.110—13.

56. I. Loudon, ‘Midwives and the quality of maternal care', in Marland and Rafferty, eds., Midwives, Society and Childbirth, pp.180—200, here pp.184—5.

57. B.A. Engel, Between the Fields and the City. Women, Work and Family in Russia, 1861­1914 (Cambridge, 1996), pp.47—9.

58. Elizabeth Badinter, The Myth of Motherhood: An Historical View of the Maternal Instinct (London, 1981), pp.xix—xx.

59. Shorter, Making of the Modern Family, pp.191—9. For a convincing critique of this position see S. Wilson, ‘The myth of motherhood a myth: the historical view of European child-rearing', Social History 9 (1984), pp.181—98.

60. Rousseau, Emile, p.12.

61. Alford (1810—71) quoted in Linda A.Pollock, Forgotten Children. Parent-Child Rela­tions from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge, 1983), p.215.

62. G.D. Sussman, ‘The end of the wet-nursing business in France, 1874—1914', in R. Wheaton and T.K. Hareven, eds., Family and Sexuality in French History (Philadelphia, 1980), pp.224—52.

63. M.L. Arnot, ‘Infant death, child care and the state: the baby-farming scandal and the first infant life protection legislation of 1872', Continuity and Change 9 (1994), pp.271—311.

64. Ross, Love and Toil, pp.141—2.

65. R.J. Evans, Death in Hamburg (Oxford, 1987), pp.445—50.

66. Wilson, TheMag}cal Universe, p.279.

67. K. Russell (1824—74) quoted in Pollock, Forgotten Children, p.225.

68. Ross, Love and Toil, pp.184—6.

69. L. Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 (London, 1977), pp.54—9, 264—7.

70. Quoted in Pollock, Forgotten Children, p.139.

71. Martynova, ‘Life of the pre-revolutionary village', p.172.

72. Quoted in Davin, Growing Up Poor, p.20.

73. Davies, ed., Maternity, p.32.

74. See J. Fink and K. Holden, ‘Pictures from the margins of marriage: representations of spinsters and single mothers in the mid-Victorian novel, inter-war Hollywood melodrama and British film of the 1950s and 1960s', Gender and History 11 (1999), pp.233—55.

75. Regina Schulte, The Village in Court. Arson, Infanticide, and Poaching in the Court Records of Upper Bavaria, 1848-1910 (Cambridge, 1994), pp.98—100.

76. A. Blaikie, Illegitimacy, Sex and Society: Northeast Scotland 1750-1900 (Oxford, 1993).

77. O. Gardarsdottir, ‘The implications of illegitimacy in late nineteenth-century Iceland', Continuity and Change 15 (2000), pp.435—61.

78. See Lynn Abrams, The Orphan Country: Children of Scotland’s Broken Homes, 1845 to the Present Day (Edinburgh, 1998), pp.11—12.

79. M. Weber, Ehefrau undMutter in der Rechtsentwicklung (Tubingen, 1907), p.508.

80. R. Fuchs, Abandoned Children. Foundlings and Child Welfare in Nineteenth-century France (Albany, NY, 1984), p.87.

81. D. Symonds, Weep Not ForMe. Women, Ballads and Infanticide in Early Modern Scotland (Pennsylvania, 1997).

82. Shetland Archives: SC 12/43/3, Shetland News, 26 Oct. 1895.

83. D.L. Ransel, Mothers of Misery. Child Abandonment in Russia (Princeton, NJ, 1988), p.19.

84. D. Kertzer, Sacrificed for Honor: Italian Infant Abandonment and the Politics of Reproductive Control (Boston, 1993).

85. Fuchs, Abandoned Children, pp.66—79. Many cities in Belgium, Spain, Portugal and Italy had abolished the tour by the 1870s.

86. Quoted in Ransel, Mothers of Misery, p.174.

87. Quoted in I. Levitt, Government and Social Conditions in Scotland 1845-1919 (Edinburgh, 1988), p.51.

88. Barbara Littlewood and Linda Mahood, ‘Prostitutes, magdalenes and wayward girls: dangerous sexualities of working-class women in Victorian Scotland', Gender and History 3 (1991), pp.160-75.

89. Anna Cova, ‘French feminism and maternity: theories and policies 1890—1918', in G. Bock and P. Thane, eds., Maternity and Gender Policies. Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s (London, 1991), pp.119—37, here p.121.

90. Quoted in Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.180.

91. G. Bock and P. Thane, Editor's introduction, in Bock and Thane, eds., Maternity and Gender Policies, pp.1-20, here p.7.

92. Ann-Sofie Ohlander, ‘The invisible child? The struggle for a social democratic family policy in Sweden, 1900-1960s', in Bock and Thane, eds., Maternity and Gen­der Policies, pp.60—72, here p.60.

93. Cova, ‘French feminism and maternity', pp.126—9.

94. Annarita Buttafuoco, ‘Motherhood as a political strategy: the role of the Italian women's movement in the creation of the Cassa Nayionale di Maternitd, in Bock and Thane, eds., Maternity and Gender Policies, pp.178—95.

95. Frieden, ‘Child care', pp.257—8.

96. Ross, Love and Toil, p.205.

97. Sian Reynolds, France Between the Wars: Gender and Politics (London, 1996), p.34.

98. Davies, ed., Maternity, pp.209—12.

99. Jane Lewis, ‘Models of equality for women: the case of state support for children in twentieth-century Britain', in Bock and Thane, eds., Maternity and Gender Policies, pp.73—92, here p.77.

100. Quoted in Bock and Thane, Editor's introduction, p.8.

101. Offen, European Feminisms, p.239.

102. Marie Baum quoted in Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.190.

Chapter 5: Home, Kinship and Community

1. See for example, Gisela Bock, ‘Challenging dichotomies: perspectives on women's history', in K. Offen, R.R. Pierson and J. Rendall, eds., Writing Women’s History: International Perspectives (Bloomington, IN, 1991), pp.1—21; Vickery, ‘Golden age to separate spheres?'; S.M. Reverby and D.O. Helly, ‘Converging on history', in Helly and Reverby, eds., Gendered Domains. Rethinking Public and Private in Women’s History (Ithaca, NY, 1992), pp.1—26; Lee Davidoff, ‘Regarding some “old husband's tales”: public and private in feminist history', in Davidoff, Worlds Between, pp.227—76.

2. M. Rosaldo, ‘The use and abuse of anthropology: reflections on feminism and cross- cultural understanding', Signs 5 (1980), pp.389—417, here p.400.

3. Segalen, Love and Power, p.108.

4. Quoted in Gillis, A World of Their Own Making, p.123.

5. Ibid., p.116.

6. Annik Pardailhe-Galabrun, The Birth of Intimacy. Privacy and Domestic Life in Early Modern Paris (Philadelphia, 1988), pp.145—73.

7. Ross, ‘Fierce questions and taunts', pp.582—3.

8. Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman’s Place (2nd edn, Oxford, 1995), p.129.

9. L. Davidoff, ‘The rationalization of housework', in Davidoff, Worlds Between, pp.73— 102, here p.74.

10. On long-term developments see Catherine Hall, ‘The history of the housewife', in Hall, White, Male and Middle Class (Oxford, 1992), pp.43-71.

11. Donna Gabaccia, ‘In the shadows of the periphery: Italian women in the nineteenth century', in Boxer and Quataert, eds., Connecting Spheres (2nd edn, Oxford, 2000), pp.194—203, here pp.200—1.

12. Bourke, Husbandry to Housewifery; Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.385; Deborah Simonton, A History of European Women’s Work, 1700 to the Present (London, 1998), p.94.

13. Lynn Abrams, ‘Companionship and conflict: the negotiation of marriage relations in the nineteenth century', in Abrams and Harvey, eds., Gender Relations in German His­tory, pp.101—20, here pp.111—14.

14. E. Warren, A Young Wife’s Perplexities (1886), quoted in Gillis, A World of Their Own Making, pp.120—1.

15. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, pp.74—5.

16. Quoted in Meyer, ‘The tiresome work of conspicuous leisure', p.190.

17. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, pp.74—92.

18. I. Beeton, Book of Household Management (1861).

19. Ibid.

20. Nancy Reagin, ‘The imagined Hausfrau: national identity, domesticity, and colonial­ism in Imperial Germany', Journal of Modern History 73 (2001), pp.54—86.

21. E. Gaskell in Kenyon, ed., 800 Years of Women’s Letters, p.134.

22. Quoted in J. Bourke, ‘“The best of all home rulers”: the economic power of women in Ireland 1880—1914', Irish Economic and Social History XVIII (1991), pp.34—47, here p.41.

23. J. Bourke, Working-class Cultures in Britain 1890-1960 (London, 1994), pp.68—9.

24. Cissie Fairchilds, Domestic Enemies. Servants and their Masters in Old Regime France (Baltimore, 1984), pp.35—6.

25. Theresa M. McBride, The Domestic Revolution: The Modernisation of Household Service in England and France 1820-1920 (London, 1976), p.45.

26. Quoted in Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, p.274.

27. Quoted in Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.196.

28. Mrs X.3 born 1906 quoted in J.D. Stephenson and C.G. Brown, ‘The view from the workplace: women's memories of work in Stirling, c.1910-c.1950', in Gordon and Breitenbach, eds., The World is III Divided, pp.7—28, here p.14.

29. Quoted in Hall, ‘History of the housewife', p.66.

30. See Davidoff et al, The Family Story, pp.77—83.

31. J. Dubisch, ‘Gender, kinship and religion: reconstructing the anthropology of Greece', quoted in D. Sabean, Kinship in Neckarhausen 1700—1870 (Cambridge, 1998), p.11.

32. Ibid., p.364.

33. Timothy Rees, ‘Women on the land: household and work in the southern country­side, 1875—1939', in V.L. Enders and P.B. Radcliff, eds., Constructing Spanish Woman­hood: Female Identity in Modern Spain (Albany, NY, 1999), pp.173—94, here pp.179—80.

34. See Sabean, Kinship in Neckarhausen, chapter 23. See also Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, ‘The female world of love and ritual: relations between women in nineteenth century America', Signs 1 (1975), pp.1—29.

35. See Gillis, A World of Their Own Making, pp.77—80; Sabean, Kinship in Neckarhausen, pp.500—1.

36. Quoted in G-F. Budde, Auf dem Weg ins Burgerleben. Kindheit undErgiehung in deutschen undenglischen Burgerfamilien 1840-1914, (Gottingen, 1994), p.191.

37. Quoted in Sabean, Kinship in Neckarhausen, p.505.

38. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, pp.280—1.

39. Tillyard, Aristocrats.

40. Roberts, A Woman’s Place, p.169.

41. Budde, Auf dem Weg, pp.181—2; Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, pp.132—4.

42. Kristin Gager, Blood Ties and Fictive Ties. Adoption and Family Life in Early Modern France (Princeton, NJ, 1996).

43. Ross, ‘Survival networks'.

44. Roberts, A Woman’s Place, chapter 5.

45. See R. Phillips, ‘Gender solidarities in late eighteenth-century urban France: the example of Rouen', Histoire Sociale — Social History 13 (1980), pp.325—37; Lynn Abrams, ‘Crime against marriage? Wife-beating, divorce and the law in nineteenth­century Hamburg', in M.L. Arnot and C. Usborne, eds., Gender and Crime in Modern Europe (London, 1999), pp.118—36, here pp.123—7.

46. Ross, Love and Toil, pp.91—106.

47. Temma Kaplan, ‘Female consciousness and collective action: the case of Barcelona, 1910—18', in Signs 7 (1982), pp.545—66, here p.566.

48. S. Rowbotham, Women, Resistance and Revolution (Harmondsworth, 1974).

49. Gay L. Gullickson, Unruly Women of Paris: Images of the Commune (Ithaca, NY, 1996), p.39.

50. Kaplan, ‘Female consciousness', pp.553—9.

51. Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.80.

52. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class, pp.138, 140—1.

53. Glasgow Sabbath School Union, annual report 1896.

54. Meyer-Renschhausen, Weibliche Kultur undsogiale Arbeit, pp.51—6.

55. Clare Midgley, ‘Ethnicity, “race” and empire', in Purvis, ed., Women’s History, pp.247-76. See also Marion Kaplan, The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany (New York, 1991).

56. Vicinus, Independent Women, p.212.

57. Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.265.

58. Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.88.

59. Ross, Love and Toil, pp.205—6.

60. Quoted in Ross, Love and Toil, p.206.

61. Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.255.

62. Clara Lucas Balfour, ‘Woman and the Temperance Reformation' (1849), quoted in Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.256.

Chapter 6: Sex and Sexuality

1. Susan Kingsley Kent, Sex and Suffrage in Britain, 1860—1914 (London, 1995), p.32.

2. Lesley A. Hall, Sex, Gender and Social Change in Britain since 1880 (Basingstoke, 2000), p.16.

3. Acton, ‘The functions and disorders of the reproductive organs' (1861), quoted in Lucy Bland, Banishing the Beast: English Feminism and Sexual Morality 1885-1914 (London, 1995), p.55.

4. Keith Thomas, ‘The double standard', Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959), pp.195— 216.

5. Laura Gowing, Domestic Dangers: Women, Words and Sex in Early Modern London (Oxford, 1996), pp.60—1.

6. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, pp.52—3.

7. Abrams, ‘Whores, whore-chasers and swine'.

8. Sabean, Property, Production and Household, p.144.

9. P. Morris, ‘Defamation and sexual reputation in Somerset, 1733—1850', PhD thesis, University of Warwick, 1985, quoted in Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.56.

10. M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality. Vol. 1 (New York, 1990), pp.103—14.

11. The Lancet (1885), quoted in Bland, Banishing the Beast, p.58.

12. Lynn Abrams, Workers’ Culture in Imperial Germany: Leisure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (London, 1992), p.100.

13. Paul Gohre (1895), quoted Abrams, Workers’ Culture, p.105.

14. Quoted in Linda Mahood, ‘The wages of sin: women, work and sexuality in the nineteenth century', in Gordon and Breitenbach, eds., The World is Ill Divided, pp.29— 48, here p.32.

15. On ‘treating' see Kathy Peiss, ‘“Charity girls” and city pleasures: historical notes on working-class sexuality 1880—1920', in A. Snitow, C. Stansell and S. Thompson, eds., Power of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York, 1983), pp.74—87.

16. Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight. Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late Victorian London (London, 1992), chapter 3.

17. Ibid., p.21.

18. Ibid., p.22.

19. On the symbolism of the prostitute see Lynda Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1988).

20. See Judith R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class and the State (Cambridge, 1980); Mary Gibson, Prostitution and the State in Italy, 1860—1915 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1986); Jill Harsin, Policing Prostitution in Nineteenth Century Paris (Princeton, NJ, 1985); Richard J. Evans, ‘Prostitution, state and society in Imperial Germany', Past and Present 70 (1976), pp.106—29; Lynn Abrams, ‘Prostitutes in Imperial Germany, 1870—1914: working girls or social outcasts?', in R.J. Evans, ed., The German Underworld (London, 1988), pp.189—209; Laura Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-Siecle Russia (Ithaca, NY, 1992).

21. T. Henderson, Disorderly Women in Eighteenth Century London: Prostitution and Control in the Metropolis, 1730-1830 (London, 1999), p.171.

22. See A. Corbin, LesFilles deNoce:Misere sexuelle et prostitution au 19e et20e siecles (Aubier, 1978); McMillan, Housewife or Harlot, pp.21—5.

23. Quoted in Kent, Sex and Suffrage, p.62.

24. Quoted in Engelstein, Keys to Happiness, p.135.

25. Flexner (1914), quoted in Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society, p.15.

26. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society, pp.20-1; Engel, Between the Fields and the City, pp.184-5.

27. Abrams, ‘Prostitutes in imperial Germany', p.193.

28. Richard Stites, The Women’s Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism and Bolshevism, 1860-1930 (Princeton, NJ, 1991), pp.224—5.

29. Linda Mahood, The Magdalenes: Prostitution in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1990).

30. Mahood, ‘The wages of sin', p.37.

31. Engel, Between the Fields and the City, p-188­

32. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, p.133.

33. Quoted in Kent, Sex and Suffrage, p.78.

34. Ibid., p.68.

35. Harsin, Policing Prostitution, pp.324-7.

36. Meyer-Renschhausen, Weibliche Kultur undSoyiale Arbeit, pp.304—5.

37. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, p.134.

38. Quoted in Kent, Sex and Suffrage, p.102.

39. Ruth Brandon, The New Women and the Old Men. Love, Sex and the Woman Question (London, 1991), p.30.

40. Tristan, ‘L'Union ouvriere', in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.213.

41. McMillan, Housewife or Harlot, p.80.

42. M. Pelletier, ‘L'Emancipation sexuelle de la femme', in J. Waelti-Walters and

S.J. Hause, eds., Feminisms of the Belle Epoque (Lincoln, NB, 1994), p.185.

43. Quoted in Brandon, The New Women, p.26.

44. E. Marx and E. Aveling, ‘The woman question: from a socialist point of view' (1886), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 2, 1880-1950 (Stanford, CA, 1983), p.86.

45. M. Pelletier, ‘L'Education feministe des filles' (1914), in Waelti-Walters and Hause, eds., Feminisms of the Belle Epoque, pp.112—13.

46. Bland, Banishing the Beast, p.256.

47. E. Key, ‘The woman movement', in Sheila Jeffreys, The Sexuality Debates (London, 1987), p.574.

48. Ibid., p.574.

49. E. Key, ‘Love and marriage' (1904), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 2, p.197.

50. Bland, Banishing the Beast, p.286.

51. I. Leatham (1912), quoted in Bland, Banishung the Beast, p.197.

52. See Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, pp.193-4.

53. Mary Nash, ‘Un/contested identities: motherhood, sex reform and the moderniza­tion of gender identity in early twentieth century Spain', in Enders and Radcliff, eds., Constructing Spanish Womanhood, pp.25-50, here pp.37-8.

54. Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement in Russia, p.180.

55. Roussel, ‘Le Droit des vierges' (1904), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 2, p.178.

56. On Vickery see Bland, Banishing the Beast, pp.207—9 and 212-13.

57. See Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.189.

58. It was estimated that up to half a million illegal abortions were carried out in Ger­many every year by 1915. Cornelie Usborne, The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany (London, 1992), p.28.

59. On the birth strike see Usborne, The Politics of the Body, pp.8-9.

60. Quoted in McLaren, Sexuality and Social Order: The Debate over the Fertility of Women and Workers in France, 1770—1920 (New York, 1983), p.165.

61. Sanger, ‘Family limitation' (1914), in Jeffreys, ed., The Sexuality Debates, pp.534-5.

62. Margaret Jackson, The Real Facts of Life. Feminism and the Politics of Sexuality c.1850- 1914 (London, 1994), p.129.

63. Lesley A. Hall, Hidden Anxieties: Male Sexuality, 1900—1950 (London, 1991).

64. Lilian Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men. Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present (London, 1991), pp.16-19.

65. Elizabeth Susan Wahl, Invisible Relations. Representations of Female Intimacy in the Age of Enlightenment (Stanford, CA, 1999), pp.94-102.

66. See Rosenberg, ‘The female world of love and ritual'.

67. Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men, pp.147-54.

68. Margaret Fuller (1855), quoted ibid., p.160.

69. Quoted ibid., pp.226-7.

70. Ibid., pp.205-18.

71. Havelock Ellis, ‘Studies in the psychology of sex’, quoted in Bland, Banishing the Beast, p.262.

72. Sheila Jeffreys, The Spinster and her Enemies: Feminism and Sexuality, 1880-1930 (London, 1985).

73. Havelock Ellis quoted in N. Miller, Out of the Past. Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the Present (London, 1995), p.26.

74. See Bland, Banishing the Beast, pp.290-6.

75. Francesca Canade Sautman, ‘Invisible women: lesbian working-class culture in France, 1880-1930', in J. Merrick and B.T. Ragan, J., eds., Homosexuality in Modern France (Oxford, 1996), pp.177-201, here pp.179-80.

76. Quoted in Miller, Out of the Past, p.76.

77. Collette, ‘The pure and the unpure', quoted in Miller, Out of the Past, p.82.

78. Sautman, ‘Invisible women', p,196.

79. Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men, pp.176—7.

80. Quoted in Bland, Banishing the Beast, p.21.

81. Nash, ‘Un/contested identies', p.39.

Chapter 7: Working for a Living

1. Judith Bennett, ‘History that stands still: women's work in the European past', Feminist Studies 14 (1988), pp.269—83, here p.278.

2. See K. Honeyman and J. Goodman, ‘Women's work, gender conflict, and labour markets in Europe, 1500—1900', Economic History Review 44 (1991), pp.608—28.

3. Ibid., p.615.

4. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.265. This view is elaborated by Katrina Honeyman, Women, Gender and Industrialisation in England, 1700-1870 (Basingstoke, 2000).

5. Simonton, European Women’s Work, p.137.

6. P. Hudson and W.R. Lee, ‘Women's work and the family economy in historical perspective', in P. Hudson and W.R. Lee, eds., Women’s Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective (Manchester, 1990), pp.2—47, here p.33.

7. R.L. Glickman, Russian Factory Women. Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley, CA, 1984), p.2.

8. See E. Higgs, Making Sense of the Census. The Manuscript Returns for England and Wales, 1801-1901 (London, 1989).

9. I. Blom, ‘“Hun er den Raadende over Husets okonomiske Angliggender”? Changes in women's work and family responsibilities in Norway since the 1860s', in Hudson and Lee, eds., Women’s Work, pp.157—82, here p.163; Hudson and Lee, ‘Women's work', p.21; Glickman, Russian Factory Women, p.95.

10. Frevert, Women in German History, p.329.

11. All figures from Bairoch et al., Working Population, pp.132 and 184.

12. Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution (London, 1930 and 1981), pp.317-21.

13. Bairoch, Working Population, pp.174 and 190.

14. Robertson, ‘In bondage', pp.117—35.

15. Smith, Changing Lives, p.149.

16. Ibid., p.277.

17. Kathleen Canning, Languages of Labor and Gender: Female Factory Work in Germany, 1850-1914 (Ithaca, NY, 1996), chapter 2.

18. J. McDermid and A. Hillyer, Women and Work in Russia 1880-1930 (London, 1998), p.87; Simonton, European Women’s Work, pp.138—9.

19. Quoted in Canning, Languages of Labor, p.44.

20. Hauptstaatsarchiv Munster: Oberlandesgericht Hamm, Appellationsgericht 43: 14 June 1855.

21. Michelet, ‘La femme' (1860), quoted in Smith, Changing Lives, p.138.

22. Maxine Berg, ‘What difference did women's work make to the industrial revolu­tion?', in Sharpe, ed., Women’s Work, pp.149—72, here p.157.

23. Ibid., p.162.

24. Smith, Changing Lives, p.178.

25. On discontinuity see Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution. For a more recent analysis see Bridget Hill, “Women’s history: a study in change, con­tinuity, or standing still?’, Women’s History Review 2 (1993), pp.78—94.

26. M. Mitterauer, ‘Geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung in vorindustrieller Zeit’, Beitrdge historische Soyialkunde (1981), pp.77-87, here p.77.

27. Engel, Between the Fields and the City, pp.13-15.

28. Lynn Abrams, ‘ “The best men in Shetland”: women, gender and place in peripheral communities’, in P. Payton, ed., Cornish Studies: Eight (Exeter, 2000), pp.97—114.

29. O. Lofgren, ‘Arbeitsteilung und Geschlechterrollen’, Ethnologia Scandinavica (1975), pp.49—71, here p.49.

30. Simonton, European Women’s Work, p.121.

31. Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism: Working Women in the English Economy, 1700­1850 (Basingstoke, 1996); Rees, ‘Women on the land’, pp.183—4.

32. Hudson and Lee, ‘Women’s work’, p.8.

33. Lofgren, ‘Arbeitsteilung und Geschlechterrollen’, p.49.

34. K.D.M. Snell, ‘Agricultural seasonal unemployment, the standard of living, and women’s work, 1690—1860’, in Sharpe, ed., Women’s Work, pp.73—121, here p.104.

35. R. Pederson, ‘Die Arbeitsteilung zwischen Frauen und Mannern in einem mar- ginalen Ackerbaugebiet — Das Beispiel Norwegen’, Ethnologia Scandinavica (1975), pp.37—48, here pp.42—3.

36. L. Sommestad, ‘Education and de-feminization in the Swedish dairy industry’, Gender and History 4 (1992), pp.34—48; Sommestad, ‘Gendering work, interpreting gender: the masculinization of dairy work in Sweden, 1850—1950’, History Work­shopjournal 37 (1994), pp.57—75.

37. B.K. Hansen, ‘Rural women in late nineteenth-century Denmark’, Journal of Peasant Studies 9 (1981), pp.225—40.

38. Quoted in Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism, p.97.

39. Quoted in Jane Rendall, Women in an Industrializing Society: England 1750-1880 (Oxford, 1990), p.17.

40. T.P. Liu, “What price a weaver’s dignity? Gender inequality and the survival of home-based production in industrial France’, in L.L. Frader and S.O. Rose, eds., Gender and Class in Modern Europe (Ithaca, NY, 1986), pp.57—76.

41. Gullickson, Spinners and Weavers of Auffay, pp.96—102.

42. A. Cento Bull, ‘The Lombard silk-spinners in the nineteenth century: an industrial workforce in a rural setting’, in Z.G. Baranski and S.W. Vinall, eds., Women and Italy. Essay on Gender, Culture and History (Basingstoke, 1991), pp.11—42.

43. Engel, Between the Fields and the City, pp.37—44.

44. Ibid., p.51.

45. Blom, ‘Hun er den Raadende’, p.160.

46. M.J. Boxer, “Women in industrial homework: the flowermakers of Paris in the belle epoque’, French Historical Studies 12 (1982), pp.401—23; Barbara Franzoi, At the Very Least She Pays the Rent: Women and German Industrialization, 1871-1914 (Westport, CT, 1985), chapter 6.

47. B. Franzoi, ‘ “... with the wolf always at the door.. women's work in domestic industry in Britain and Germany', in Boxer and Quataert, eds., Connecting Spheres (2nd edn), pp.164—73, here p.166.

48. Ibid., p.169.

49. Louise A. Tilly, Politics and Class in Milan 1881—1901 (Oxford, 1992), p.40.

50. Berg, ‘What difference did women's work make?', pp.167—8.

51. Royal Commission on Poor Laws, 1909, quoted in Alice J. Albert, ‘Fit work for women: sweated home-workers in Glasgow, c.1875—1914', in Gordon and Breitenbach, eds., The World is Ill-Divided, pp.158—77, here p.160.

52. Ibid.

53. Liu, ‘What price a weaver's dignity?', p.74.

54. Judith G. Coffin, ‘Consumption, production, and gender: the sewing machine in nineteenth century France', in Frader and Rose, eds., Gender and Class in Modern Europe, pp.111—41. See also Karin Hausen, ‘Technical progress and women's labour in the nineteenth century: the social history of the sewing machine', in G. Iggers, ed., The Social History of Politics (Leamington Spa, 1985), pp.259—81.

55. Sonya O. Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-century England (London, 1992), p.88.

56. ‘Im Kampf uns Dasein' (c.1880), quoted in M.J. Maynes, Taking the Hard Road: Life Course in French and German Workers’ Autobiographies in the Era of Industrialization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), p.72.

57. Edith Hogg (1900) quoted in Davin, Growing Up Poor, p.193.

58. British Parliamentary Papers, Cd. 555, 1872 Truck Enquiry, p.426. See L.G. Fryer, Knitting by the Fireside and on the Hillside (Lerwick, 1995), chapter 3.

59. Franzoi, At the Very Least, p.139.

60. Simonton, European Women’s Work, p.151.

61. Rose, Limited Livelihoods, p.85.

62. Respondent to Select Commission on Homework (1908), in Rose, Limited Livelihoods, p.95.

63. Quoted in S. Pennington and B. Westover, A Hidden Workforce. Homeworkers in England, 1850—1985 (Basingstoke, 1989), p.107.

64. Angela V. John, By the Sweat of their Brow. Women Workers at Victorian Coal Mines (London, 1984); Sharron P.Schwartz, ‘“No place for a woman”: gender at work in Cornwall's metalliferous mining industry', in Payton, ed., Cornish Studies: Eight, pp.69—96.

65. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.270.

66. Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; 3rd edn, London, 1992), p.235.

67. Peter Earle, ‘The female labour market in London in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries', in Sharpe, ed., Women’s Work, pp.121—49, here pp.132, 138.

68. Canning, Languages of Labor, p.81.

69. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.3.

70. J.W. Scott, ‘On language, gender, and working class history', in J.W. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, p.64.

71. Quoted in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.206.

72. Bridget Hill, Women, Work, and Sexual Politics in Eighteenth-century England (Oxford, 1989), p.259.

73. F. Bettio, The Sexual Division of Labour: The Italian Case (Oxford, 1988), pp.128—32.

74. Ibid., p.141.

75. H.H. Chanut, ‘The gendering of skill as an historical process: the case of the French knitters in industrial Troyes, 1880—1939', in Frader and Rose, eds., Gender and Class, pp.77—107, here pp.88—9.

76. (N.d.) quoted in Rose, Limited Livelihoods, p.27.

77. Sian Reynolds, Britannica’s Typesetters. Women Compositors in Edwardian Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1989), pp.70-1.

78. G. de Groot and M.Schrover, Women Workers and Technological Change in Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London, 1992), p.284.

79. A. Phillips and B. Taylor, ‘Sex and skill: notes towards a feminist economics', in Feminist Review, ed., Waged Work: A Reader (London, 1986), pp.54—66, here p.55.

80. Eleanor Gordon, Women and the Labour Movement in Scotland 1850-1914 (Oxford, 1991), p.152.

81. Canning, Languages of Labor, pp.56 and 78.

82. Mary Lynn Stewart, Women, Work and the French State. Labour Protection and Social Patriarchy, 1879-1919 (Kingston, 1989), p.203.

83. Ibid., p.162.

84. Ibid., p.9.

85. Quoted in Schwartz, ‘No place for a woman', p.78.

86. S.O. Rose, ‘Protective labor legislation in nineteenth-century Britain: gender, class and the liberal state', in Rose and Frader, eds., Gender and Class, pp.193—210, here p.202.

87. Canning, Languages of Labor, pp.129—30; Stewart, Women, Work and the French State, chapter 8; Rose, ‘Protective labor legislation', pp.205—9; see also McDermid and Hillyar, Women and Work in Russia, pp.43—4.

88. Quoted in Canning, Languages of Labor, p.139.

89. Stewart, Women, Work and the French State, p.15.

90. Gordon, ‘Women, work and collective action: Dundee jute workers 1870—1906', Journal of Social History 21 (1987), pp.27—48, here p.31.

91. Stephenson and Brown, ‘The view from the workplace', p.26.

92. Judy Lown, Women and Industrialization. Gender at Work in Nineteenth Century England (Oxford, 1990), pp.109—16, 124—31.

93. Patricia Hilden, Working Women and Socialist Politics in France 1880-1914 (Oxford, 1986), p.119.

94. Canning, Languages of Labor, p.221.

95. Ibid., p.220.

96. Ibid., p.258.

97. Mrs G.1 (1924) quoted in Stephenson and Brown, ‘View from the workplace', p.20.

98. Reynolds, Britannica’s Typesetters, p.138.

99. Heynrichs (1866) quoted in E.S. Riemer and J.C. Fout, eds., European Women: A Documentary History 1789—1945 (New York, 1980), p.53.

100. Canning, Languages of Labor, p.260.

101. Rosa Maria Capel Martinez, ‘Life and work in the tobacco factories: female industrial workers in the early twentieth century', in Enders and Radcliff, eds., Constructing Spanish Womanhood, pp.131-50, here p.135.

102. Roger Magraw, History of the French Working Class, Vol. 2, Workers and the Bourgeois Republic (Oxford, 1992), p.69.

103. D.J. O'Connor, ‘Representations of women workers: tobacco strikers in the 1890s', in Enders and Radcliff, eds., Constructing Spanish Womanhood, pp.151—72.

104. See Pamela Radcliff, ‘Elite women workers and collective action: the cigarette makers of Gijon, 1890—1930', Journal of Social History 27 (1993), pp.85—108.

105. Quoted in Riemer and Fout, eds., European Women, pp.20—3.

106. Tilly, Politics and Class in Milan, p.136.

107. Stites, The Women’s Liberation Movement, p.244.

108. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, p.192.

109. Tilly, Politics and Class in Milan, p.171.

110. Canning, Languages of Labor, pp.261—7.

111. Gordon, Women and the Labour Movement, pp.172—6.

112. Ibid., p.177.

113. Magraw, History of the French Working Class, pp.67, 69.

114. Canning, Languages of Labor, p.266.

115. Quoted in McDermid and Hillyer, Women and Work in Russia, p.45.

116. Gordon, Women and the Labour Movement, p.210.

117. Smith, Changing Lives, p.304.

118. Frevert, Women in German History, pp.99—100.

119. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, p.196.

120. Canning, Languages of Labor, p.315.

121. Deborah Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls: Women Workers in World War I (London, 1998), p.140.

122. Quoted in B.S. Anderson and J.P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present, Vol. II (London, 1988), pp.291—2.

123. Hilden, Working Women, p.131.

124. Quoted in Glickman, Russian Factory Women, p.208.

125. Ibid., p.200.

126. Union of Tailoresses, Dressmakers and Allied Trades (1903) in Riemer and Fout, eds., European Women, pp.27— 8.

127. Bairoch, The Working Population, pp.83—4, 96.

128. Ellen Jordan, The Women’s Movement and Women’s Employment in Nineteenth Century Britain (London, 1999), p.79.

129. Ibid., p.195.

130. Ursula Nienhaus, Vater Staat und seine Gehilfinnen. Die Politik mit den Frauenarbeit bei derdeutschePost (1864—1945) (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1995).

131. Report to Parliament (1871) quoted in Jordan, The Women’s Movement, pp.12—13.

132. Theresa M. McBride, ‘A woman's world: department stores and the evolution of women's employment, 1870—1920', French Historical Studies 10 (1978), pp.664—83.

133. Quoted in Stephenson and Brown, ‘The view from the workplace', p.17.

134. Simonton, European Women’s Work, p.249.

135. See Shani D'Cruze, ‘Imperfect workers — imperfect answers: recent publications on the history of women and work', Urban History 26 (1999), pp.257—67, here p.260.

Chapter 8: Politics, Nation and Identity

1. Quoted in Hunt, Family Romance, p.116.

2. H.B. Applewhite and D.G. Levy, Introduction, in Applewhite and Levy, eds., Women and Politics in the Age of Democratic Revolution (Ann Arbor, MI, 1990), p.2.

3. Ann McLintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995), pp.24-5.

4. Quoted in B. Gray and L. Ryan, ‘The politics of Irish identity and the interconnec­tions between feminism, nationhood and colonialism', in R.R. Pierson and N. Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, IN, 1998), pp.121-38, here p.121.

5. Condorcet, ‘Plea for the citizenship of women' (1790), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.99.

6. De Gouge, ‘Les Droits de la femme' (1791), ibid., pp.104—5.

7. Demoulin (1793) quoted in Offen, European Feminisms, p.62.

8. D. Godineau, ‘Masculine and feminine political practice during the French Revolu­tion, 1793—Year III', in Applewhite and Levy, eds., Women and Politics, pp.61—80, here p.61.

9. Ibid., p.62.

10. See D.G. Levy and H.B. Applewhite, ‘Women and political revolution in Paris', in Bridenthal, Koonz and Stuard, eds., Becoming Visible (2nd edn), pp.279—306.

11. D.G. Levy and H.B. Applewhite, ‘Women, radicalization, and the fall of the French monarchy', in Applewhite and Levy, eds., Women and Politics, pp.81—107, here p.81.

12. J. Bohstedt, ‘The myth of the feminine food riot: women as proto-citizens in English community politics, 1790—1810', in Applewhite and Levy, eds., Women and Politics, pp.21—60.

13. Godineau, ‘Masculine and feminine political practice', p.65.

14. Levy and Applewhite, ‘Women, radicalization', p.102.

15. James F. McMillan, France and Women 1789-1914: Gender, Society and Politics (London, 2000), p.25.

16. Applewhite and Levy, Introduction, p.6.

17. See Joan Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY, 1988).

18. Chaumette quoted in McMillan, France and Women, pp.30—1.

19. W.Ph. te Brake, R.M. Dekker and L.C. van de Pol, ‘Women and political culture in the Dutch revolutions', in Applewhite and Levy, eds., Women and Politics, pp.109—46.

20. Smith, Changing Lives, p.120.

21. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.153.

22. Quoted in Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, p.235.

23. Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p.172.

24. L.S. Strumingher, ‘Looking back: women of 1848 and the revolutionary heritage of 1789', in Applewhite and Levy, eds., Women and Politics, pp.269—73.

25. Jane Rendall, ‘The citizenship of women and the Reform Act of 1867', in C. Hall, K. McLelland and J. Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867 (Cambridge, 2000), pp.121—8.

26. ‘Address of the Female Political Union of Newcastle Upon Tyne to their fellow countrywomen' (1839), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.228.

27. ‘Address to the Women of England' (1841), quoted in Jane Rendall, ‘Claiming citizenship: women's politics in Britain 1780—1870', in Major Themes in Women’s History from the Enlightenment to the Great War ([CD-ROM] Glasgow History Course­ware Consortium, 1998).

28. L’Atelier (1844), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.230-1.

29. M. Mylne (1872) quoted in Hall, McLelland and Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation, p.29.

30. Quoted in S. Zucker, ‘German women and the revolution of 1848: Kathinka Zitz- Halein and the Humania Association', Central European History 13 (1980), pp.237­54, here p.245.

31. J.W. Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man (Cambridge, MA, 1996), p.81.

32. Schraub, Zwischen Salon undMddchenkammer, pp.124-6.

33. Zucker, ‘German women and the revolution of 1848', p.244.

34. Smith, Changing Lives, p.238.

35. Quoted in W. Walton, Eve’s Proud Descendants. Four Women Writers and Republican Pol­itics in Nineteenth-century France (Stanford, CA, 2000), p.228.

36. Ibid., p.230.

37. Quoted in Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer, p.70.

38. Ibid., p.71.

39. Quoted in Schraub, Zwischen Salon undMddchenkammer, pp.136-7.

40. Quoted in Walton, Eve’s Proud Descendants, pp.178-9.

41. Hedwig Dohm, Woman’s Nature and Privilege, trans. C. Campbell (Westport, CT, 1976), p.125.

42. J. Deroin and P. Roland (1851) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, andFree- dom, Vol. 1, p.289.

43. V. Woolf, Three Guineas (London, 1938), p.197.

44. Nira Yuval-Davis quoted in Gray and Ryan, ‘Politics of Irish identity', p.123. See also Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London, 1997).

45. Sarah L. White, ‘Liberty, honor, order: gender and political discourse in nineteenth­century Spain', in Enders and Radcliff, eds., Constructing Spanish Womanhood, pp.233­57, here pp.236 - 40.

46. A. McLintock, ‘Family feuds: gender, nationalism and the family', Feminist Review 44 (1993), pp.61-80, here p.66.

47. R.R. Pierson, Introduction, in Pierson and Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony, p.4.

48. Linda Colley, Britons. Forging the Nation 1707—1837 (London, 1992), pp.263—7; Karen Hagemann, ‘A valorous Volk family', in I. Blom, K. Hagemann and C. Hall, eds., Gendered Nations: Nationalisms and Gender Order in the Long Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 2000), pp.179—206, here pp.183—6.

49. Colley, Britons, p.275.

50. John Lawrence Tone, ‘Spanish women in the resistance to Napoleon, 1808—1814', in Enders and Radcliff, eds., Constructing Spanish Womanhood, pp.259—82.

51. Pieter M. Judson, ‘The gendered politics of German nationalism in Austria, 1880— 1900', in D.F. Good, M. Grandner and M.J. Maynes, eds., Austrian Women in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Oxford, 1996), pp.1-17.

52. Hagemann, ‘A valorous Volk family', p.192.

53. Ida Blom, ‘Gender and nation in international comparison', in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, eds., Gendered Nations, pp.3—26, here pp.11-14; I.D. Bjornsdottir, ‘Nationalism, gender and the body in Icelandic nationalist discourse', NORA, Nordic Journal of Women’s Studies 5 (1997), pp.3—13.

54. Nancy Reagin, ‘The imagined Hausfrau^,, pp.74—9.

55. Irina Novikova, ‘Constructing national identity in Latvia: gender and representa­tion during the period of national awakening', in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, eds., Gendered Nations, pp.311—34, here p.325.

56. Ida Blom, ‘Nation—class—gender: Scandinavia at the turn of the century', Scandinavian Journal of History 21 (1996), pp.1—16, here pp.3—4.

57. See Rendall, Origins of Modern Feminism, pp.34—42.

58. Jitka Maleckova, ‘Nationalising women and engendering the nation: the Czech national movement', in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, eds., Gendered Nations, pp.293— 310, here p.296. Also Sharon L. Wolchik, ‘Czech and Slovak women and political leadership', Women’s History Review 5 (1996), pp.525—38.

59. Andrea Feldman, ‘Yugoslavia imagined: women and the ideology of Yugoslavism (1918—1939)', in S. Kemlein, J. Gehmacher and E. Harvey, eds., Zwischen Kriegen — Nationen, Nationalismen und Geschlechterverhdltnisse in Mittel- und Osteuropa, 1918-1939 (forthcoming, 2002).

60. Anna Zarnowska, ‘Education of working class women in the Polish Kingdom',Acta Poloniae Historica 74 (1996), pp.137—59, here p.144.

61. A. Szwarc, ‘Women among the creators of intellectual and artistic culture in Poland', Acta Poloniae Historica 74 (1996), pp.245—6.

62. Quoted in B. Lorence-Kot, ‘Klementyna Tanska Hoffmanowa, cultural nationalism and a new formula for Polish womanhood', History of European Ideas 8 (1987), pp.435—50, here p.437.

63. Malgorzata Fidelis, ‘“Participation in the creative work of the nation”: Polish women intellectuals in the cultural construction of female gender roles, 1864—1890', Women’s History Review 13 (2000), pp.108—31, here p.111.

64. Lorence-Kot, ‘Klementyna Tanska Hoffmanowa', p.445.

65. Fidelis, ‘Participation in the creative work', pp.115—18.

66. Quoted in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.175—6.

67. On the Czechs see Maleckova, ‘Nationalising women', pp.296—7; for Bulgaria, K. Daskalova, ‘Women and nationalism, old and new, in Bulgaria’, unpublished paper, Oslo, 2000, and Tatyana Nestorova, ‘Between tradition and modernity: Bulgarian women during the development of modern statehood and society, 1878—1945’, Women’s History Review 5 (1996), pp.513—24.

68. E. Varikas, ‘Gender and national identity in fin de siecle Greece’, Gender and History 5 (1993), pp.269-83, here p.272.

69. R. Chickering, ‘“Casting their gaze more broadly”: women’s patriotic activism in Imperial Germany’, Past and Present 32 (1988), pp.156—85, here p.162.

70. Ibid., p.170.

71. Angelika Schaser, ‘Women in a nation of men: the politics of the League of German Women’s Associations (BDF) in Imperial Germany, 1894—1914’, in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, eds., Gendered Nations, pp.249—68, here p.258.

72. Quoted ibid., p.262.

73. Lynn Abrams, ‘Feminists—citizens—mothers: debates about citizenship, national identity and motherhood in nineteenth-century Germany’, in T. Brotherstone, D. Simonton and O. Walsh, eds., Gendering Scottish History: An International Approach (Glasgow, 1999), pp.186—98.

74. Quoted in Margaret Ward, Unmanageable Revolutionaries: Women and Irish Nationalism (London, 1983), p.69.

75. Margaret Ward, ‘The Ladies’ Land League and the Irish Land War 1881/1882: defining the relationship between women and nation’, in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, eds., Gendered Nations, pp.229—48, here p.244.

76. Gray and Ryan, ‘The politics of Irish identity’, p.127.

77. Blom, ‘Gender and nation’, p.17.

78. Geoff Eley, ‘Culture, nation and gender’, in Blom, Hagemann and Hall, eds., Gendered Nations, pp.27—40, here p.33.

79. G.L. Gullickson, Unruly Women of Paris: Images of the Commune (Ithaca, NY, 1996), p.3.

Chapter 9: Women's Mission to Empire

1. McLintock, Imperial Leather, p.6.

2. Ibid., p.34.

3. Quoted in Susan Thorne, Congregational Missions and the Making of an Imperial Culture in 19th-century England (Stanford, CA, 1999), p.85.

4. See Anna Davin, ‘Imperialism and motherhood’, History Workshop Journal 5 (1978), pp.9—65.

5. Rev. T. Matheson (1890) quoted in Thorne, Congregational Missions, p.97.

6. Ibid., p.98.

7. Clare Midgley, ‘Anti-slavery and the roots of “imperial feminism”’, in C. Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism (Manchester, 1998), pp.161—79, here p.165.

8. Reid, A Plea for Woman, p.2.

9. Midgley, Women Against Slavery: The British Campaigns 1780-1870 (London, 1992), pp.97—8.

10. Quoted ibid., p.99.

11. Ibid., pp.60-2.

12. Antoinette Burton, ‘Women and “domestic” imperial culture: the case of Victorian Britain', in Boxer and Quataert, eds., Connecting Spheres (2nd edn), pp.174—84, here p.176.

13 Clare Midgley, ‘Female emancipation in an imperial frame: English women and the campaign against sati (widow burning) in India, 1813—30', Women’s History Review 9 (2000), pp.95—121.

14. Quoted ibid., p.100.

15. Ibid., p.112.

16. Burton, ‘Women and “domestic” imperial culture', p.177.

17. Midgley, Women Against Slavery, pp.87—91.

18. See Himani Bannerji, ‘Age of consent and hegemonic social reform', in Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism, pp.21—44.

19. Burton, ‘Women and “domestic” imperial culture', p.176.

20. McLintock, Imperial Leather, p.31.

21. Ibid., pp.210—19.

22. Yvette Abrahams, ‘Images of Sara Bartman. Sexuality, race and gender in early- nineteenth-century Britain', in Pierson and Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony, pp.220—36, here p.227.

23. Quoted in J.R. Horne, ‘In pursuit of greater France: visions of empire among musee social reformers, 1894—1931', in J. Clancy-Smith and F. Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire. Race, Gender and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, VA, 1998), pp.21—42, here p.36.

24. Ibid., p.38.

25. Nancy R. Reagin, A German Women’s Movement. Class and Gender in Hanover, 1880­1933 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), pp.181—2.

26. Quoted in Julia Bush, ‘ “The right sort of woman”: female emigrators and emigra­tion to the British Empire', Women’s History Review 3 (1994), pp.385—409, here p.390.

27. Quoted in Jane Haggis, ‘White women and colonialism: towards a non-recuperative history', in Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism, pp.45—75, here p.53.

28. David W. Savage, ‘Missionaries and the development of a colonial ideology of female education in India', Gender and History 9 (1997), pp.201—21.

29. Haggis, ‘White women and colonialism', p.58.

30. Elizabeth Robertson, Mary Slessor. The Barefoot Missionary (Edinburgh, 2001), p.27.

31. Bush, ‘The right sort of woman', pp.385—6.

32. A.F. Walls, ‘Mary Slessor', in Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology (Edinburgh, 1993), pp.778—9.

33. Burton, ‘Women and “domestic” imperial culture', p.177.

34. Margaret Strobel, ‘Gender, race and empire in nineteenth and twentieth-century Africa and Asia', in Bridenthal, Koonz and Stuard (eds.), Becoming Visible (3rd edn), pp.389—414, here p.395.

35. Quoted in Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Basingstoke, 1987), p.38.

36. www.channel4.com/plus/victorians/2_empire.html (accessed 7 August 2001).

37. Lora Wildenthal, ‘Race, gender, and citizenship in the German colonial empire', in F. Cooper and A.L. Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire. Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, (Berkeley, 1997), pp.263—83.

38. P. Pattynama, ‘Secrets and danger: interracial sexuality in Louis Couperus's The Hidden Force and Dutch colonial culture around 1900', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire, pp.84—107, here p.99.

39. A.L. Conkin, ‘Redefining “Frenchness”: citizenship, race regeneration, and imperial motherhood in France and West Africa, 1914—40', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire, pp.65—83, here pp.76—82.

40. P. Edwards, ‘Womanizing Indochina: fiction, nation and cohabitation in colonial Cambodia, 1890—1930', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire, pp.108-30, here p.118.

41. Conklin, ‘Redefining “Frenchness”', pp.81-2.

42. Edwards, ‘Womanizing Indochina', pp.113-6.

43. E. Locher-Scholten, ‘So close and yet so far: the ambivalence of Dutch colonial rhetoric on Javanese servants in Indonesia, 1900-1942', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire, pp.131-53.

44. See Pattynama, ‘Secrets and danger', p.100.

45. A phrase coined by Mary Elisabeth Oake when she found herself the only white woman in British Cameroon, quoted in Callaway, Gender, Culture and Empire, p.5.

46. General Daumas quoted in J. Clancy-Smith, ‘Islam, gender, and identities in the making of French Algeria, 1830-1962', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesti­cating the Empire, pp.154-74, here p.163.

47. Midgley, ‘Female emancipation', p.111.

48. The terms ‘good' and ‘bad patriarchy' are used by Midgley, ‘Female emancipation', p.112.

49. Haggis, ‘White women and colonialism'.

50. Burton, ‘Women and “domestic” imperial culture', p.179.

51. R. Smith Kipp, ‘Emancipating each other: Dutch colonial missionaries' encounter with Karo women in Sumatra, 1900-1942', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire, pp.211-35.

52. Strobel, ‘Gender, race and empire', p.403.

53. A. Burton, ‘Women and “domestic” imperial culture', p.181.

54. McLintock, Imperial Leather, p.35.

55. See Midgley, ‘Anti-slavery', pp.166-73.

56. Midgley, ‘Female emancipation', p.108.

57. Midgley, Women Against Slavery, p.203.

58. Catherine Hall, ‘The nation within and without', in Hall, McClelland and Rendall, Defining the Victorian Nation, pp.179- 82.

59. Catherine Hall, White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (Cambridge, 1992), p.207.

60. Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women and Imperial Cul­ture, 1865—1915 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994).

61. Clancy-Smith, ‘Islam, gender, and identities', p.170.

62. Quoted ibid., p.171.

63. Strobel, ‘Gender, race and empire', p.407.

64. See J.M. Bowlan, ‘Civilizing gender relations in Algeria: the paradoxical case of Marie Bugega, 1919—39', in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire, pp.175—92, and Barbara Bush, ‘“Britain's conscience on Africa”: white women, race and imperial politics in inter-war Britain', in Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism, pp.200—23.

Chapter 10: First-Wave Feminism

1. Karen Offen, ‘Liberty, equality, and justice for women: the theory and practice of feminism in nineteenth-century Europe', in Bridenthal, Koonz and Stuard, eds., Becoming Visible, 2nd edn, pp.335—74, here pp.337—9.

2. On the etymology of the terms see Offen, European Feminisms, pp.183—8.

3. Offen, ‘Liberty, equality, and justice for women', p.339.

4. See Kathryn Gleadle and Sarah Richardson, eds., Women in British Politics, 1760—1860: The Power of the Petticoat (Basingstoke, 2000); Midgley, Women Against Slavery; F. Gordon and M. Cross, eds., Early French Feminisms, 1830—1940 (Cheltenham, 1996).

5. Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement, pp.68-74.

6. See Richard J. Evans, The Feminists. Women’s Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia 1840—1920 (London, 1977), chapter 1.

7. Offen, European Feminisms, p.31.

8. In Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.252—5.

9. Danuta Rzepniewska, ‘Women of the landowning class in the Polish Kingdom during the 19th century', Acta Poloniae Historica 74 (1996), pp.97—120, here pp.112 — 16.

10. M.L. Mikhailov, ‘Women: their education and significance in the family and society' (1860); N.G. Chernyshevsky, ‘What is to be Done' (1863), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.350—7; Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement, pp.38—63.

11. J.S. Mill, ‘The Subjection of Women' (1869), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.392.

12. Evans, The Feminists, p.30.

13. Reagin, A German Women’s Movement, pp.30, 133.

14. Fidelis, ‘Participation in the creative work of the nation', pp.109—10.

15. M. Oliphant, ‘The laws concerning women' (1856), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.306.

16. B. Leigh Smith, ‘A Brief Summary, in Plain Language of the Most Important Laws Concerning Women' (1854); C. Norton, ‘The Separation of Mother and Child' (1838), both ibid., pp.161—3, 300—5.

17. A.M. Mozzoni, ‘La donna e i suoi rapporti sociali in occasione della revisione del codice civile italiano' (1864), ibid., pp.447— 8.

18. Dohm, Der Frauen Natur und Recht, p.165.

19. In Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.453.

20. Hedwig Dohm, ‘Der Jesuitismus im Hausstande' (1873), ibid., p.506.

21. J. Hirsch, ‘Hedwig Dohm: Der Jesuitismus im Hausstande' (1873—4), ibid., p.509.

22. Quoted in Kent, Sex and Suffrage, p.141.

23. Wollstonecraft, Vindication, p.183.

24. Quoted in M. Bryant, The Unexpected Revolution: A Study in the History of Education of Woman and Girls in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1979), p.22.

25. Otto-Peters (1847) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.177-9.

26. Harlor (1900) in Waelti-Walters and Hause, eds., Feminisms of the Belle Epoque (Lincoln, NB, 1994), p.77.

27. Ibid., p.78.

28. M. Pelletier, ‘L’Education feministe des filles' (1914) in Waelti-Waters and Hause, eds., Feminisms of the Belle Epoque, p.110.

29. Reagin, A German Women’s Movement, pp.101-13.

30. Sarah J. Smith, ‘Retaking the register: women's higher education in Glasgow and beyond, c.1796-1845’, Gender and History 12 (2000), pp.310—35, here p.323.

31. Clarke (1873) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 2, pp.427-31.

32. Quoted in W. Heindl and M. Tichy, eds., ‘Durch Erkenntnis yu Freiheit und Gluck.. Frauen an der Universitat Wien (ab 1897) (Vienna, 1993), pp.27-35.

33. Maudsley, ‘Sex in Mind and Education’ (1874), quoted in E.S. Eschbach, The Higher Education of Women in England and America 1865-1920 (New York, 1993), p.84.

34. Garrett Anderson, ‘Sex in mind and education’ (1874), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.435.

35. Ferry (1870) ibid., pp.440-2.

36. See (1880) ibid., pp.443-4.

37. J. Crouzet-Benaben (1911) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 2, pp.170-1.

38. Linda Clark, The Rise of Professional Women in France. Gender and Public Administration since 1830 (Cambridge, 2000), pp.44-5.

39. McMillan, Housewife or Harlot, pp.52-3.

40. Davies, ‘Special systems of education for women’ (1868), in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 1, pp.417-22.

41. Claire Jones, ‘Grace Chisolm Young: gender and mathematics around 1900’, Women’s History Review 9 (2000), pp.675-92.

42. Rzepniewska, ‘Women of the landowning class’, p.115; Zarnowska, ‘Education of working-class women’, p.152.

43. Wendy Alexander, ‘Early Glasgow women medical graduates’, in Gordon and Breitenbach, eds., The World is Ill Divided, pp.70-94.

44. Reagin, A German Women’s Movement, pp.112-16.

45. Salomon quoted in Allen, Feminism and Motherhood, p.212.

46. Ria Christens, ‘Sociaal geengageerd en ongehuwd: sociale werksters in Vlaanderen in de jaren 1920-1930’, Cahiers dHistoire du Temps Present/Bijdragen tot de Eigentijdse Geschiedenis 4 (1998), pp.65-82.

47. Clark, Rise of Professional Women in France, pp.118-19.

48. Figures in Jordan, The Women’s Movement, pp.78-9.

49. Quoted in Carol Dyhouse, No Distinction of Sex: Women in British Universities, 1870­1939 (London, 1995), p.134.

50. Kollontai (1923) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 2, pp.287—8.

51. Bebel, ‘Woman under socialism', ibid., p.85.

52. Zetkin (1889) ibid., p.87.

53. Quoted in Offen, European Feminisms, p.169.

54. M.J. Boxer, ‘Socialism faces feminism: the failure of synthesis in France, 1879— 1914', in M.J. Boxer and J.H. Quataert, eds., Socialist Women. European Socialist Feminism in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (New York, 1978), pp.75-111, here p.85.

55. B. Tanner Springer, ‘Anna Kuliscioff: Russian revolutionist, Italian feminist', in J. Slaughter and R. Kern, eds., European Women on the Left. Socialism, Feminism, and the Problems faced by Political Women, 1880 to the Present (Westport, CT, 1981), pp.13-28.

56. Evans, The Feminists, p.169.

57. Quoted in Gordon, Women and the Labour Movement, p.228.

58. C. LaVigna, ‘The Marxist ambivalence toward women: between socialism and feminism in the Italian Socialist party', in Boxer and Quataert, eds., Socialist Women, pp.146—81, here pp.156—7.

59. Boxer, ‘Socialism faces feminism', p.91.

60. Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement, p.242.

61. Lenin (1918) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom, Vol. 2, p.288.

62. Trotsky (1936) ibid., p.402.

63. Kent, Sex and Suffrage, p.13.

64. Megan Smitley, ‘Inebriates, “heathens”, templars and suffragists: Scotland and imperial feminism 1870—1914', Women’s History Review (forthcoming 2002).

65. See R.J. Evans, The Feminist Movement in Germany 1894—1933 (London, 1976), pp.76—7.

66. E. Pankhurst (1908) in Bell and Offen, Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 2, p.237.

67. H. Lange (1913) ibid., pp.243—4.

68. M. Garrett Fawcett (1912) ibid., pp.239—40.

69. C. Chapman Catt (1913) ibid., p.245.

Chapter 11: The Great War

1. Quoted in Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls, p.1.

2. Quoted in C. Geinitz, Kriegsfurcht und Kampfbereitschaft. Das Augusterlebnis in Freiburg. Eine Studie yum Kriegsbeginn 1914 (Essen, 1997), pp.333—4.

3. Ibid., p.336.

4. Jay Winter, ‘Some paradoxes of the First World War', in R. Wall and J. Winter, eds., The Upheaval of War. Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914-1918 (Cambridge, 1988), pp.9—42, here p.11.

5. Susan R. Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War: Gender, Motherhood and Politics in Britain and France during the First World War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), p.51.

6. Ibid., p.64.

7. Ibid., pp.52—63; Ruth Harris, ‘“The child of the barbarian”: rape, race and national­ism in France during the First World War', Past and Present 141 (1993), pp.170—206.

8. Quoted in Geinitz, Kriegsfurcht, p.356.

9. Angela Woollacott, On Her Their Lives Depend. Munitions Workers in the Great War (Berkeley, CA, 1994), pp.84—8.

10. Quoted in Geinitz, Kriegsfurcht, pp.382—3.

11. Frevert, Women in German History, p.153.

12. Belinda J. Davis, Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), pp.180-1.

13. The story was told by Asta Nielson, a Danish visitor to Berlin, in Davis, Home Fires Burning, pp.180—1.

14. Quoted in Ute Daniel, The War from Within: German Working-class Women in the First World War (Oxford, 1997), p.249.

15. Ibid., p.207.

16. Quoted in Y.M. Klein, ed., Beyond the Home Front. Women’s Autobiographical Writing of the Two World Wars (Basingstoke, 1997), pp.121—2.

17. Barbara Wootton (1917) in J. Marlow, ed., The Virago Book of Women and the Great War 1914—18 (London, 1998), pp.199—200.

18. Vera Brittain ibid., p.195.

19. Dr Bartsch ibid., p.51.

20. This phrase from May Sinclair’s The Tree of Heaven (1917), quoted in Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War, p.20.

21. Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War, p.27.

22. Quoted in Daniel, War from Within, p.143.

23. Angela Woollacott, ‘“Khaki fever” and its control: gender, class, age and sexual morality on the British homefront in the First World War’, Journal of Contemporary History 29 (1994), pp.325—47, here p.328.

24. The Times (Oct. 1914) quoted in G.J. de Groot, Blighty. British Society in the Era of the Great War (London, 1996), p.231.

25. Daniel, War from Within, pp.132, 136; B.R. Mitchell and P. Deane, eds., Abstract of British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1962), p.300.

26. C.G. Brown, ‘Piety, gender and war in Scotland in the 1910s’, in C.M.M. Macdonald and E.W. McFarland, eds., Scotland and the Great War (East Linton, 1999), pp.173—91, here p.173.

27. Quoted in Daniel, War from Within, p.144.

28. National Archives of Scotland: GD 409/1/5: SNSPCC, Edinburgh District Minute Book, 1 July—30 Sept. 1917.

29. Daniel, War from Within, pp.145—7.

30. Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War, p.141.

31. Daniel, War from Within, pp.273—4.

32. Quoted in Smith, Changing Lives, p.377.

33. Kaplan, ‘Women and communal strikes in the crisis of 1917—1922’, in Bridenthal, Koonz and Stuard, eds., Becoming Visible (2nd edn), pp.429—49, here pp.438—40.

34. Quoted in Magraw, History of the French Working Class, pp.171—2.

35. Kaplan, ‘Women and communal strikes’, pp.441—4; Kaplan, ‘Female consciousness and collective action’, pp.545—66.

36. J.J. Smyth, ‘Rents, peace, votes: working-class women and political activity in the First World War', in E. Breitenbach and E. Gordon, eds., Out of Bounds. Women in Scottish Society 1800—1945 (Edinburgh, 1992), pp.174—96.

37. P. Sorokin quoted in Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement, pp.289—90.

38. Daniel, War from Within, pp.38—49.

39. Ibid., pp.48-9.

40. Thom, Nice Girls and Rude Girls, pp.46-7.

41. McDermid and Hillyer, Women and Work in Russia, pp.144—5.

42. L. Deletang quoted in Marlow, ed., Women and the Great War, p.29.

43. Vorwαrts (10 Sept. 1914) ibid., p.33.

44. Quoted in Anna Bravo, ‘Italian peasant women and the First World War', in A. Marwick, C. Emsley and W. Simpson, eds., Total War and Historical Change: Europe 1914-1955 (Buckingham, 2001), p.88.

45. Pankhurst in Marlow, ed., Women and the Great War, pp.86—97, here p.84.

46. Daniel, War from Within, pp.82—4.

47. Quoted ibid., p.99.

48. N. Loughnan quoted in Marlow, ed., Women and the Great War, p.167.

49. McDermid and Hillyer, Women and Work in Russia, pp.144—8.

50. Quoted in Janet K. Watson, ‘Khaki girls, VAD's, and Tommy's sisters: gender and class in First World War Britain', The International History Review 19 (1997), pp.32—51, here p.49.

51. Quoted in Daniel, War from Within, p.101.

52. Sylvia Pankhurst (1915) in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 2, p.281.

53. V. Brittain to Roland Leighton, 1 Oct. 1914, in A. Bishop and M. Bostridge, eds., Letters from a Lost Generation: First World War Letters of Vera Brittain and Four Friends (London, 1999), p.31.

54. Quoted in Deborah Gorham, Vera Brittain: A Feminist Life (Oxford, 1996), p.183.

55. N.F. Gullace, ‘White feathers and wounded men: female patriotism and the memory of the Great War', Journal of British Studies 36 (1997), pp.178—206, here p.183.

56. Quoted in Margaret H. Darrow, ‘French volunteer nursing and the myth of war experience in World War One', American Historical Review 101 (1996), pp.80—106, here p.88.

57. O. Dent (1917) quoted in Watson, ‘Khaki girls', p.32.

58. F.E. Rendel in Marlow, ed., Women and the Great War, p.231.

59. Regina Schulte, ‘The sick warrior's sister: nursing during the First World War', in Abrams and Harvey, eds., Gender Relations in German History, pp.121—41, here p.127.

60. M. Borden in Marlow, ed., Women and the Great War, p.331.

61. Smith ibid., p.325.

62. Krisztina Robert, ‘Gender, class, and patriotism: women's paramilitary units in First World War Britain', The International History Review 19 (1997), pp.52—65.

63. See Susan R. Grayzel, ‘“The outward and visible sign of her patriotism”: women, uniforms and national service during the First World War', Twentieth Century British History 8 (1997), pp.145—64.

64. Ibid., p.159.

65. Bochkareva quoted in McDermid and Hillyar, Women and Work in Russia, p.141.

66. H. Swanwick (1915) quoted in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol. 1, p.270.

67. Quoted in Offen, European Feminisms, p.260.

68. Richard J. Evans, “Women’s peace, men's war?', in R.J. Evans, ed., Comrades and Sisters: Feminism, Socialism and Pacifism in Europe 1870-1945 (London, 1987), p.130.

69. Quoted in Offen, European Feminisms, p.259.

70. Quoted in Bell and Offen, eds., Women, the Family and Freedom, Vol.2, p.274.

71. Quoted in Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War, p.181, and see pp.165—86 for a full discussion of the trial of Brion.

72. See Gordon and Cross, eds., Early French Feminisms, chapter 7, pp.189—227.

73. Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War, p.246.