The Red Sea Ports and Onward Shipment to Alexandria

The main Red Sea ports that received, stored and distributed spices from South Asia were Berenike and Myos Hormos, though other ports had long histories and were mentioned in the Periplus (§4), e.g.

The archaeology of the Red Sea ports appears to show an upswing in activity in the fourth and fifth centuries CE. The late Roman period also saw a preference for use of northerly Red Sea ports over southerly locations, probably a defensive preference, emphasising the key ports closest to the Egyptio-Roman heartlands. According to T. Power, Clysma and Aila (modern Aqaba) became the main Byzantine ports in the sixth century dealing with Indian Ocean trade.¹¹⁸

The importance of the trade is highlighted by evidence of Roman soldiers on the Farasan Islands in the southern Red Sea, about 1,000km south of Berenike, referred to in Latin inscriptions from the second century CE.¹¹⁹ Cobb viewed the peak of Roman Indian Ocean trade in the late first century CE and decline thereafter, for whatever reason. Berenike

Berenike was established in the third century BCE and was abandoned in the mid-sixth century CE. Its role as a spice transshipment port is undisputed. In four seasons of archaeological investigation, almost 1,600 peppercorns were found in the building remains; in addition, large amounts of charred peppercorns were found near the Temple of Serapis and large Indian jars filled with peppercorns in the temple courtyard. The luxury goods, including pepper, were on their way to Alexandria via desert and Nile routes. Residents of Berenike may well have included Indian nationals, based on the presence of ostraka (pottery sherds with writing) with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions and archaeobotanical evidence of rice.

Although black pepper was a common archaeobotanical find at Berenike, there was also a unique discovery of an Indian dolium storage jar containing about 7.5kg of black peppercorns recovered from a late first-century BCE or early first-century CE courtyard in the Serapis temple.¹²¹ A total of fifty-four botanical items from Berenike have either been documented in literature or found at Berenike, though hard field evidence for spices from India apart from black pepper is limited to sesame (and coconut).¹²² Other spices found (e.g. coriander, fenugreek, cumin and fennel) may have had a different provenance.

The evidence suggests that Berenike enjoyed a peak period of prosperity in the first century CE.¹²³ In this period, it was a vibrant town in the desert, where the greatest fortunes of the time were made. This was followed by a sharp decline in the second century (though activity continued) and a modest recovery mid-fourth century, before abandonment in the sixth century, after which it was buried under the desert sands. Myos Hormos

This is situated north of Berenike, also on the western (Egyptian) coast of the Red Sea, 8km north of modern Quseir al-Qadim. It was founded at a similar time to Berenike, and appears to have been abandoned in the early third century CE, possibly a result of the crises that affected Rome around that time. It came in to use again during the medieval era between 1050 and 1500. This is the port described by Strabo, writing in the final years BCE or early years CE, from where 120 ships per year set sail for India. It is also well documented in the Periplus. Strabo further mentioned that Myos was linked to the Nile at Coptos by a road across the eastern desert. The Myos archaeological site shows a lot of activity in the late first century BCE and first century CE, including remains of a Roman harbour and artefacts such as Roman rigging material, re-used ships’ timbers, coins, etc.¹²⁴ Myos may have been the main shipbuilding/repair site on the Egyptian Red Sea coast.

Some eighty-five food plants have been recovered from Quseir/Myos, preserved due to dessication in the extremely arid environment. These include black pepper from the Roman era and cardamom, ginger, turmeric and betel nut from the medieval period. Onward Shipment to Alexandria

Koptos, situated on the east bank of the Nile, probably dates back to pre-Dynastic times (i.e. before 3100 BCE). It became important due to its strategic position on the Nile and as the starting point for caravans to the Red Sea ports. The road to Myos Hormos exploited Wadi Hammamat – a dry riverbed that connected Koptos with the coast at Myos. The route was protected by the Roman army with forts and caravanserai – with good reason. There was a lot of wealth passing through the route and Koptos. Onward shipment to Alexandria was by boat from Koptos, following the Nile downstream to the Mediterranean.