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1. The global distribution of fifty-five spices in their approximate native locations.

(Basemap reproduced with the permission of CartoGIS Services, Scholarly Information Services, The Australian National University)

2. The native distribution of key spice plants from the coriander (Apiaceae) and ginger (Zingiberaceae) families.

(Basemap reproduced with the permission of CartoGIS Services, Scholarly Information Services, The Australian National University)

3. The native distribution of key spice plants from the Piperaceae family: note the four centres of origin.

(Basemap reproduced with the permission of CartoGIS Services, Scholarly Information Services, The Australian National University)

4. Images from a sixth-century CE copy of Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica. From left to right: glykirizon (liquorice), marathron (fennel), arkeuthis (juniper). This book was presented to Anicia Juliana in thanks for her funding the construction of a church in Constantinople. (Codex Aniciae Julianae, Vienna)

5. A summary of the Bronze Age and Iron Age spice trade. (Satellite Image Source: Blue Marble 18mb NASA Visible Earth)

6. A comparison of six commonly used spices from the Apiaceae family. (Author)

7. Clockwise from above: dried black pepper fruits; dried long pepper fruits; dried cubeb pepper fruits. (Author)

8. ‘Foliage, Flowers, and Fruit of the Pepper Plant’ by Marianne North (1830–90). The plant is black pepper – Piper nigrum L. (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

9. The western Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Red Sea and Gulf, showing a schematic indication of the monsoon winds and currents. (Courtesy of J. Whitewright, 2018)

10. A pepper-pot depicting Hercules wrestling a giant, from the Romano-British Hoxne hoard, fifth century CE. (British Museum

11. The Empress pepper-pot, also from the Hoxne hoard. (British Museum)

12. A pepper-pot depicting a slave in chains from the Chaourse hoard in northern France, third century CE. (British Museum)

13. Map showing the spice trade routes across the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the first and second centuries CE. (Satellite Image Source: Blue Marble 18mb NASA Visible Earth)

14. A section of the schematic Roman map Tabula Peutingeriana, showing the position of Muziris.

15. The recto of the second-century CE Muziris Papyrus. Note the guard and security needed for this very precious cargo – and the sophisticated style of the almost 2000-year-old contract. (Photograph courtesy of the Austrian National Museum, translation courtesy of D. Rathbone, 2021)

… your other administrators or managers, and on agreement(?) I will hand (the goods) [(over(?)] to a trustworthy camel-driver for the arrangement(?) [of the journey up(?)] to Koptos; and I will carry (them) up through the desert under guard and protection [to the] public tax-receiving warehouses at Koptos, and I will place (them) under the [authority] and seal of you or of your administrators or whichever one of them is present, until the loading at the river; and I will load (them) [at the requi]red moment on to a safe river-going ship, and I will carry (them) down to the warehouse for receiving the quarter-tax [at Ale]xandria, and [so too] will place them under the authority and seal of you or your men, with all the expenses from now to collection of the quarter-tax [on my part(?)], and the desert transport charges and the river freight charges and the other incidental outgoings on terms that if, on occurrence of the time for repayment specified in the contracts of the loan for (the trip to) Muziris, I do not [then] rightly discharge the aforesaid loan in my name, then you and your administrators or managers are to have the option and complete authority, if you so choose, to carry out execution without [notifica]tion or summons to judgement, to possess and own the aforesaid security, and to collect (i.e. deduct) the quarter-tax and transfer the [three] parts which will be left where you choose, and to sell or use them as security [and] to cede them to another person, if you so choose, and to manage the items of the security in whatsoever way you choose, and to buy them for yourself at the price apparent at that moment, and to subtract and reckon in what falls due [for the aforesaid] loan, so the guarantee for what falls due [lies] with you and your administrators or managers, (and) we are free from accusation in every respect, and the surplus or shortfall from the capital [goes] to me the borrower and giver of sec[urity] …

16. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) from Koehler’s Medicinal-Pflanzen, 1887. (Biodiversity Heritage Library)

17. Zingiberaceae plants (a–c) and rhizomes (d–g). (a) greater galangal (A. galanga); (b) torch ginger flower (E. elatior); (c) mioga ginger (Z. mioga); (d) ginger (Z. officinale); (e) turmeric (C. longa); (f) fingerroot (B. rotunda); (g) greater galangal (A. galanga). (Author)

18. A map of the false provenance of the Zingiberaceae family spices before the late second century CE. The locations circled in red are the incorrect reports of provenance provided by ancient writers: these are simply where these spices were brought into contact with the West. Tr. Ar. = Troglodytical Arabia. Plotting these on a map provides an elegant illustration of the main trade routes. (Satellite Image Source: Blue Marble 18mb NASA Visible Earth)

19. Left to right: black cardamom (Amomum sublatum), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and grains of paradise (Aframomum melegueta), with their close-ups below. (Author)

20. ‘Foliage, flowers and fruit of the nutmeg tree, and hummingbird, Jamaica’, by Marianne North (1830–90). (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

21. Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) from Birds and all Nature, 1899, Chicago. (Biodiversity Heritage Library)

22. Hiri Island, as viewed from Ternate in the Molucca (Maluku) Islands of Indonesia. These were part of the ‘Spice Islands’ fought over by the Portuguese, Dutch and British. Cloves were the main prize at Ternate. (Author)

23. Cinnamon, nutmeg, mace and cloves: together with black pepper, these were the ‘golden spices’ sought after by Portuguese, English and Dutch explorers and traders in the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. (Author)

24. The outbound journeys of the major early Portuguese voyages of discovery to the Far East. (Satellite Image Source: Blue Marble 18mb NASA Visible Earth)

25. Changing fortunes in Asia: Portuguese, Dutch and English trading posts in 1700. (Satellite Image Source: Blue Marble 18mb NASA Visible Earth)

26. The price of Far Eastern spices in England from 1263 to 1786. (Data from J. E. Thorold Rogers, 1866–1902)

27. Capsicum annuum from L. Koehler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen, Vol. 2, 1890. (Biodiversity Heritage Library)

28. Capsicum Diversity: a) Capsicum chinense (Hainan yellow lantern) (Anna Frodesiak, CC0-1.0); b) Capsicum baccatum (bishop’s crown) (Rouibi Dhia Eddine Nadjam, CC-BY-SA-4.0); c) Capsicum frutescens (tabasco); d–h) Capsicum annuum, various. (Author)

29. Images of Capsicum from Fuchs’ 1543 translation of De historia stirpium commentarii insignes. Left: C. annuum; right: possibly C. chinense.

30. Conquering the world in 100 years: the global diffusion of Capsicum. (Satellite Image Source: Blue Marble 18mb NASA Visible Earth)

31. Design for a Colman’s Mustard advert by Alfred Munnings (1858–1959). (© Estate of Sir Alfred Munnings, Dedham, Essex. All rights reserved, DACS 2023)

32. ‘Foliage, Flowers, and Seed-vessel of the Opium Poppy’ by Marianne North (1830–90). (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

33. ‘Harvesting the sugar-cane in Minas Geraes, Brazil’ by Marianne North (1830–90). (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)