Notes

Introduction

M. Van Der Veen in K. B. Metheny & M. C. Beaudry (eds), 2015, Archaeology of Food: An Encyclopedia, Rowman & Littlefield.

K. Lewis in Archaeology of Food.

G. Milton, 1999, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, Hodder & Stoughton.

J.-P. Reduron, 2021, ‘Taxonomy, origin and importance of the Apiaceae family’ in E. Geoffriau & P. W. Simon (eds), 2021, Carrots and Related Apiaceae Crops, CABI Publishing.

W. J. Kress & C. D. Specht, 2006, ‘The evolutionary and biogeographic origin and diversification of the tropical monocot Order Zingiberales’, Aliso, vol. 22 pp. 621–32.

D. J. Harris et al., 2000, ‘Rapid radiation in Aframomum (Zingiberaceae): evidence from nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences’, Edinburgh Journal of Botany, vol. 57, issue 3 pp. 377–95.

J. F. Smith et al., 2008, ‘Placing the origin of two species-rich genera in the Late Cretaceous with later species divergence in the Tertiary: a phylogenetic, biogeographic and molecular dating analysis of Piper and Peperomia (Piperaceae)’, Plant Systematics and Evolution, vol. 275.

Chapter 1

C. P. Bryan, 1930, The Papyrus Ebers, G. Bles, London.

Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bishagratna (ed.), 1907, An English translation of the ‘Sushruta Samhita’ based on original Sanskrit text, Calcutta.

K. M. Balapure, J. K. Maheshwari & R. K. Tandon, 1987, ‘Plants of Ramayana’, Ancient Science of Life, vol. 7, 2; M. Amirthalingham, 2013, ‘Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana’, IJEK, 2, 1.

W. H. S. Jones (translator), 1957, Hippocrates, Loeb Classical Library vol. 1, Introduction, William Heinemann Ltd, London.

Hippocrates, Epidemics VI, 5, 1.

Hippocrates, Regimen in Acute Diseases, XXIII.

Hippocrates, Epidemics II, 5, 22.

Ibid. 6, 7.

Ibid. 6, 29.

Hippocrates, Epidemics VII, 2.

Ibid. 6.

Ibid. 64.

Ibid. 118.

L. M. V. Totelin, 2006, ‘Hippocratic recipes: oral and written transmission of pharmacological knowledge in fifth- and fourth-century Greece’, Doctoral thesis, University of London.

Hippocrates, Epidemics I, 11.

A. Hort, 1916, Theophrastus, Enquiry into Plants, English Translation, vol. I, Introduction, William Heinemann Ltd, London.

Ibid. vol II, Book IX, 5.

Ibid.

J. W. McCrindle, 1877, Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trubner.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, XV, 1.57.

Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists, or Banquet of the Learned of Athen?us IV, 39, C. D. Yonge (translator), 1854, H. G. Bohn, London.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, XV, 1, 58–60; W. Falconer (translator), 1857, The Geography of Strabo, vol. 3, H. G. Bohn, London.

Pliny, Natural History, VI, 21.

H. L. Jones (translator), 1917, The Geography of Strabo, vol. 1, Introduction, William Heinemann Ltd, London.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, I, 2.1; H. C. Hamilton (translator), The Geography of Strabo, vol. 1, H. G. Bohn, London.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, II, 5.12.

Celsus, De Medicina, II, 27, J. Greive (translator), 1814, Edinburgh; Ibid. II, 31.

Pliny, Natural History, XXV, 5.

E. H. Bunbury, 1883, A history of ancient geography among the Greeks and Romans, from the earliest ages till the fall of the Roman Empire, John Murray, London.

H. B. Ash (translator), 1960, Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella on Agriculture, vol. 1, Introduction, William Heinemann, London.

J. Bostock & H. T. Riley (translators), 1855, The Natural History of Pliny, vol. 1, Introduction, H. G. Bohn, London.

J. M. Riddle, 1980, Dioscorides, Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum, IV, 1–143 Catholic University of America Press.

T. A. Osbaldeston & R. P. A. Wood, 2000, Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, a new indexed version in modern English, Ibidis.

The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides... Englished by John Goodyer A. D. 1655, edited and first printed by R. T. Gunter (1933), Hafner, London and New York.

Ibid.

J. W. McCrindle, 1885, Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy, Trubner.

I. Tupikova, 2013, in Proceedings of the 26th International Cartographic Conference, Dresden.

E. Capps, T. E. Page & W. H. D. House (eds), 1916, Galen, On the Natural Faculties, Introduction, W. Heinemann.

P. Holmes, 2002, ‘Galen of Pergamon: A Sketch of an Original Eclectic and lntegrative Practitioner, and His System of Medicine’, Journal of the American Herbalists Guild.

J.

F. Adams (translator), 1844, The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta, The Sydenham Society, London.

C. A. Y. Breslin, 1986, ‘Abu Hanifah Al-Dinawari’s Book of Plants, an annotated English translation of the extant alphabetical portion’, thesis, University of Arizona.

P. D. Buell & E. N. Anderson, 2010, A Soup for the Qan: Chinese dietary medicine of the Mongol eras seen in Hu Sihui’s Yinshan Zhengyao, Brill.

F. Sabban, 1985, ‘Court cuisine in fourteenth-century imperial China: Some culinary aspects of Hu Sihui’s Yinshan Zhengyao’, Food and Foodways: Explorations in the History and Culture of Human Nourishment, 1:1–2, 161–196, DOI: 10.1080/07409710.1985.9961883.

Rembert Dodoens, 1552, De frugum historia, Joannis Loëi; Rembert Dodoens, 1554, Cruydeboeck, Jan van der Loë.

H. Lyte (translator), 1578, A niewe Herball or Historie of Plantes, Gerard Dewes, London.

J. Gerard, 1597, The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, John Norton, London.

N. Culpeper, 1653, Angelica, Complete Herbal.

C. Linnaeus, 1735, System Naturae sive regna tria natur? systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species, Lugduni Batavorum, Theodorum Haak.

Chapter 2

N. Boivin et al., 2015, ‘Old World globalization and food exchanges’, in Archaeology of Food, K. B. Metheny & M. C. Beaudry (eds).

C. Brombacher, 1997, ‘Archaeobotanical investigations of Late Neolithic lakeshore settlements (Lake Biel, Switzerland)’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 6.

N. Boivin & D. Fuller, 2009, ‘Shell Middens, Ships and Seeds: Exploring Coastal Subsistence, Maritime Trade and the Dispersal of Domesticates in and Around the Ancient Arabian Peninsula’, Journal of World Prehistory, 22.

D. Bedigian & J. R. Harlan, 1986, ‘Evidence for cultivation of sesame in the ancient world’, Economic Botany, 40.

D. Q. Fuller, 2003, ‘Further evidence on the prehistory of sesame’, Asian Agri-History, vol. 7, 2.

V. Zech-Matterne et al., 2015, ‘Sesamum indicum L. (sesame) in 2nd century BC Pompeii, southwest Italy, and a review of early sesame finds in Asia and Europe’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 24.

E. Tsafou & J. J. Garcia-Granero, 2021, ‘Beyond staple crops: exploring the use of “invisible” plant ingredients in Minoan cuisine through starch grain analysis on ceramic vessels’, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 13, 8.

E. S. Marcus, 2007, ‘Amenemhet II and the sea: maritime aspects of the Mit Rahina (Memphis) inscription’, Egypt and the Levant, vol. XVII.

F. Rosengarten Jr, 1969, The Book of Spices, pp.23–96, Jove Publ., Inc., New York.

G. Buccellati & M. Kelly-Buccellati, 1978, ‘The Terqa Archaeological Project: First Preliminary Report’, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes, pp. 27–8.

M. L. Smith, 2019, ‘The Terqa Cloves and the Archaeology of Aroma’ in S. Alentini & G. Guarducci (eds), Between Syria and the Highlands. Studies in Honor of Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, Studies on the Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean (SANEM 3), Arbor Sapientiae Editore, Roma.

A. B. Edwards, 1891, Pharaohs Fellahs and Explorers, Harper & Bros, New York.

F. D. P. Wicker, 1998, ‘The Road to Punt’, The Geographical Journal, vol. 164, 2.

J. Turner, 2004, Spice: The History of a Temptation, HarperCollins.

E. Naville & H. R. Hall, 1913, ʻThe XIth Dynasty Temple at Deir El-Bahari Part III’, 32nd Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund, London.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, The spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to AD 641, Oxford University Press.

A. Scott et al., 2020, ‘Exotic foods reveal contact between South Asia and the Near East during the second millennium BCE’, www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2014956117.

C. L. Glenister, 2008, ‘Profiling Punt: using trade relations to locate “God’s Land”’, M.Phil. thesis, University of Stellenbosch.

C. Pulak, 2008, ‘The Uluburun shipwreck and Late Bronze Age trade’ in Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

A. Plu, 1985, ‘Bois et graines’ in L. Balout & C. Roubet (eds), La momie de Ramsès II: Contribution scientifique à l’egyptologie, pp. 166–74, Editions Recherches sur les Civilisations, Paris.

H. Hjelmqvist, 1979, ‘Some economics plants and weeds from the Bronze Age of Cyprus’ in U. Obrink (ed.), Hala Sultan Tekke 5: Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, XLV:5, Paul Astroms Forlag, Goteborg.

D. Namdar et al., 2013, ‘Cinnamaldehyde in early Iron Age Phoenician flasks raises the possibility of Levantine trade with Southeast Asia’, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 13, 2.

T. Popova, 2016, ‘New archaeobotanical evidence for Trigonella foenum-graecum L. from the 4th century Serdica’, Quaternary International.

D. Bedigian & J. R. Harlan, 1986, op. cit.

V. Zech-Matterne et al., 2015, op. cit.

D. Bedigian, 2010, ‘History of the Cultivation and Use of Sesame’ in D. Bedigian (ed.), Sesame: The genus Sesamum, CRC Press.

E. Naville & H. R. Hall, 1913, op. cit.

D. Namdar et al., 2013, op. cit.

A. Scott et al., 2020, op. cit.

N. Boivin & D. Fuller, 2009, op. cit.

D. Kučan, 1995, ‘Zur Ernährung und dem Gebrauch von Pflanzen im Heraion von Samos im 7, Jahrhundert v.Chr.’ Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 110.

www.allpoetry.com/poem/15809044.

A. Gilboa & D. Namdar, 2015, ‘On the beginnings of South Asian spice trade with the Mediterranean region: a review’, Radiocarbon, vol. 57, 2.

Herodotus, c. 430 BCE, Histories, I.183; I.198.

Ibid. II.86.

Ibid. IV.71.

B. P. Foley et al., 2011, ‘Aspects of ancient Greek trade re-evaluated with amphora DNA evidence’, Journal of Archaeological Science.

Hippocrates, fifth–fourth century BCE, The Hippocratic Corpus.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, Enquiry into Plants.

W. Dymock et al., 1891, Pharmacographia Indica: A history of the principal drugs of vegetable origin met with in British India, vol. 2, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London.

R. S. Singh & A. N. Singh, 1983, ‘Impact of historical studies on the nomenclature of medicinal and economic plants with particular reference to clove (Lavanga)’, Ancient Science of Life, 2, 4.

C. C. Costillo et al., 2016, ‘Rice, beans and trade crops on the early maritime Silk Route in Southeast Asia’, Antiquity.

T. Popova, 2016, op. cit.

N. Boivin & D. Fuller, 2009, op. cit.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, XVI, 4.19.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 30.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, op. cit.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India, Pen & Sword Military.

D. O. Pollmer, 2000, ‘The spice trade and its importance for European expansion’, Migration & Diffusion, vol. 1, 4.

P. E. McGovern et al., 2009, ‘Ancient Egyptian herbal wines’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 106, 18, www.pnas.org.cgi.doi.10.1073.pnas.0811578106.

P. G. van Alfen, 2002, ‘Pant’Agatha commodities in Levantine–Aegean Trade during the Persian Period, 6–4th c. BC’, PhD thesis, University of Texas.

G. Algaze, 1993, The Uruk World System, University of Chicago Press.

R. Mookerji, 1912, Indian shipping: A history of the sea-borne trade and maritime activity of the Indians from the earliest times, Longmans, Green and Co.

E. J. Chinnock (translator), 1884, The Anabasis of Alexander or, The History of the Wars and Conquests of Alexander the Great, Hodder and Stoughton.

J. H. Breasted, 1906, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 2, p. 265, University of Chicago Press.

F. D. P. Wicker, 1998, op. cit.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 42.

P. Frankopan, 2015, The Silk Roads: A New History of the World, Bloomsbury.

F. Rosengarten Jr, 1969, op. cit.

R. Chakravarti, 2012, ‘Merchants, Merchandise and Merchantmen in the Western Seaboard of India: A Maritime Profile (c. 500 BCE– 1500 CE)’ in Om Prakash (ed.), Trading World of the Indian Ocean, 1500–1800, New Delhi.

E. H. Seland, 2014, ‘Archaeology of Trade in the Western Indian Ocean, 300 BC–AD 700’, Journal of Archaeological Research, 22.

R. Gurrukal, 2013, ‘Classical Indo-Roman Trade: A Misnomer in Political Economy’, Economic and Political Weekly, 48 (26).

Sing C. Chew, 2016, ‘From the Nanhai to the Indian Ocean and Beyond: Southeast Asia in the Maritime “Silk” Roads of the Eurasian World Economy 200 BC–AD 500’ in Andrey Korotyev, Barry Gills & Chis Chase-Dunn (eds), Systemic Boundaries: Time Mapping Globalization since the Bronze Age, Springer, Heidelberg.

Kwa Chong Guan, 2016, The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea, NSC Working Paper No. 23.

Chapter 3

J. Diamond, 1997, Guns, Germs and Steel, Chatto & Windus.

G. Barjamovic et al., 2019, ‘Food in Ancient Mesopotamia: Cooking the Yale Babylonian Culinary Recipes’ in A. Lassen et al. (eds), 2019, Ancient Mesopotamia Speaks, Yale Peabody: New Haven, CT.

E. R. Ellison, 1978, ‘A study of diet in Mesopotamia (c. 3000–600 BC) and associated agricultural techniques and methods of food preparation’, PhD thesis, University of London.

S. Raghavan, 2007, Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings, CRC Press.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XIX, 48.

Ibid. XX, 46.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

J. Gerard, 1597, op. cit.

Thomas Dawson, 1596, The Good Huswifes Jewell.

John Murrell, 1615, A New Book of Cookerie; John Murrels, 1638, Two Books of Cookerie and Carving.

Gervase Markeham, 1615, The English Huswife.

Elizabeth Grey, 1653, A Choice Manual of Rare and Select Secrets in Physick and Chyrurgery.

Robert May, 1660, The Accomplisht Cook, or the Art and Mystery of Cooking.

T. P., J. P., R. C., N. B., 1674, The English and French Cook.

William Rabisha, 1661, The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected.

Hannah Wooley, 1677, Compleat Servant-Maid.

Kenelme Digby, 1669, The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digby Kt opened.

John Shirley, 1690, The Accomplished Ladies Rich Closet of Rarities.

Herodotus, c. 430 BCE, Histories, IV.71.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XX, 72–3.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

P. Westland, 1987, The Encyclopedia of Herbs & Spices, Marshall Cavendish; www.ourherbgarden.com.

Apicius, De Re Coquinaria.

K. Colquhoun, 2007, Taste: The Story of Britain through its Cooking, Bloomsbury; M. Van der Veen, A. Livarda & A. Hill, 2008, ‘New Plant Foods in Roman Britain: Dispersal and Social Access’, Environmental Archaeology, vol. 13, 1.

Oribasius, Medical Collections.

A. Dalby, 2003, Flavours of Byzantium, Prospect Books.

www.ourherbgarden.com.

The Master Cooks of Richard II, 1390, The Forme of Cury.

S. Ims, 2012, ‘Spices in Late Medieval England: Uses and Representations’, thesis, Monash University.

MS 136. 1071, from a fifteenth-century collection called ‘A Leechbook’, referred to in M. Black, 1992, The Medieval Cookbook.

Syr Thomas Elyot, 1539, The Castel of Helth.

Andrew Boorde, 1542, A Dietary of Health.

J. Gerard, 1597, op. cit.

Numerous examples: Thomas Dawson, 1596, op. cit.; Giovanne de Rosselli, 1598, Epulario or The Italian Banquet; Sir Hugh Plat, 1603, Delightes for Ladies, to adorne their Persons, Tables, Closets, and Distillatories; Gervase Markeham, 1615, op. cit.; John Murrel, 1617, A Daily Exercise for Ladies and Gentlewomen; Sir Theodore Mayerne, 1658, Excellent & Approved Receipts and Experiments in Cookery; Robert May, 1660, op. cit.; Hannah Woolley, 1675, The Accomplish’d Lady’s Delight.

K. Colquhoun, 2007, op. cit.

Eliza Smith, 1727, The Compleat Housewife, J. Pemberton, London; Hannah Glasse, 1747, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy.

C. K. George, ‘Asafetida’ in K. V. Peter (ed.), 2012, Handbook of herbs and spices, vol. 3.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, XV, 2.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

Ibn Sayyah al-Warraq, tenth century CE, Kitab al-Tabikh.

C. Taylor Sen, 2015, Feasts and Fasts: A History of Food in India, Reaktion Books.

Garcia de Orta, 1563, Colloquies on the Simples and Drugs of India.

M. Jaffrey, 1985, A Taste of India, Pavilion.

J. Sahni, 1987, Classic Indian Vegetarian Cooking, Dorling Kindersley.

S. Raghavan, 2007, op. cit.

H. Reculeau, 2017, ‘Farming in ancient Mesopotamia’, Oriental Institute, News and Notes.

T. Solmaz and E. Oybak Donmez, 2013, ‘Archaeobotanical studies at the Urartian site of Ayanis in Van Province, eastern Turkey’, Turkish Journal of Botany, 37.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

Pliny, Natural History, XIX, 49.

www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk.

P. Vandorpe, 2010, ‘Plant macro remains from the 1st and 2nd Cent. A.D. in Roman Oedenburg/Biesheim-Kunheim (F). Methodological aspects and insights into local nutrition, agricultural practices, import and the natural environment’, PhD thesis.

In Kelli C. Rudolph (ed.), 2017, Taste and the Ancient Senses.

Apicius, De Re Coquinaria.

www.daviddfriedman.com/Medieval.

D. P. O’Meara, 2016, ‘An assessment of the cesspit deposits of Northern England: An archaeobotanical perspective’, MSc thesis, Durham University.

S. Ims, 2012, op. cit.

The Master Cooks of Richard II, 1390, op. cit.

John Russell, 1460–70, Boke of Nurture.

William Shakespeare, 1600, Henry IV Part 2, Act V Scene 3.

John Parkinson, 1629, Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris.

Hannah Glasse, 1747, op. cit.

P. Westland, 1987, op. cit.

S. K. Malhotra, 2012, ‘Chapter 15 – Caraway’ in Handbook of herbs and spices.

S. Raghavan, 2007, op. cit.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

A. Livarda & M. Van der Veen, 2008, ‘Social access and dispersal of condiments in North-West Europe from the Roman to the medieval period’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany.

M. Van der Veen, A. Livarda & A. Hill, 2008, op. cit.

A. Hagen, 2006, Anglo-Saxon Food & Drink, Anglo-Saxon Books.

A. Davidson, 1999, The Oxford Companion to Food.

Giles Rose, 1682, A perfect School of Instructions for the Officers of the Mouth: shewing the whole art.

Antonio Targioni Tozzetti, 1850, in ‘Historical notes on the introduction of various plants into the agriculture and horticulture of Tuscany’, in 1855, Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, London, 9.

John Partridge, 1588, The Widowes Treasure.

J. Gerard, 1597, op. cit.

Gervase Markeham, 1615, op. cit.

E. L. Sturtevant, 1886, History of Celery.

Olivier de Serres, 1623, Theâtre d’agriculture.

Hannah Woolley, 1675, op. cit.

Kenelme Digby, 1669, op. cit.

John Shirley, 1690, op. cit.

Bernard M’Mahon, 1806, The American Gardener’s Calendar.

Agnes B. Marshall, 1888, Mrs A. B. Marshall’s Cookery Book.

S. K. Maholtra, ‘Celery’ in K. V. Peter (ed.), 2012, Handbook of herbs and spices, vol. 3.

Ibid.

M. M. Sharma & R. K. Sharma, ‘Coriander’ in K. V. Peter (ed.), 2012, Handbook of herbs and spices, vol. 1.

E. Callaway, 2012, ‘Soapy taste of coriander linked to genetic variants’, Nature, News.

D. Zohary & M. Hopf, 1993, Domestication of Plants in the Old World (2nd ed.), p. 188, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

A. Diederichsen, 1996, ‘Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.): Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops’, 3, Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.

E. N. Sinskaja, 1969, reported in Diederichsen, 1996.

R. Germer, 1989, Die Pflanzenmaterialien aus dem Grab des Tutanchamon, Gerstenberg Verlag.

E. R. Ellison, 1978, op. cit.

J. Chadwick, 1972, ‘Life in Mycenaean Greece’ in Hunters, Farmers and Civilizations: Old World Archaeology, Scientific American, W. H. Freeman & Co.

J. M. Sasson, 2004, ‘The King’s Table: Food and Feast in Old Babylonian Mari’ in C. Grottanelli and L. Milano (eds), Food and Identity in the Ancient World, S.A.R.G.O.N.

N. F. Miller in Archaeology of Food, K. B. Metheny & M. C. Beaudry (eds), 2015.

N. Boivin et al. in Archaeology of Food, Ibid.

M. M. Sharma and R. K. Sharma, 2012, op. cit.

Aristophanes, 424 BCE, The Knights; Hippocrates, fifth–fourth century BCE, op. cit.; Columella, De Re Rustica, X.

L. Moffett in Archaeology of Food, K. B. Metheny & M. C. Beaudry (eds), 2015.

M. Robinson & E. Rowan, 2015, ‘Chapter 10: Roman Food Remains in Archaeology and the Contents of a Roman Sewer at Herculaneum’ in J. Wilkins & R. Nadeau (eds), Companion to Food in the Ancient World, John Wiley & Sons.

L. Lodwick, 2014, ‘Agricultural innovations at a Late Iron Age oppidum: Archaeobotanical evidence for flax, food and fodder from Calleva Atrebatum, UK’, Quaternary International.

M. Van der Veen, A. Livarda & A. Hill, 2008, op. cit.

A. Livarda & M. Van der Veen, 2008, op. cit.

Li, H., 1969, ‘The vegetables of ancient China’, Economic Botany, referred to in Diederichsen, 1996.

A. Hagen, 2006, op. cit.

F. J. Green, 1979, ‘Medieval plant remains: methods and results of archaeobotanical analysis from excavations in southern England with especial reference to Winchester and urban settlements of the 10th–15th centuries’, MPhil thesis, University of Southampton.

Hannah Glasse, 1747, op. cit.

Daily Mail, 2 October 2014.

www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/03/11/392317352/is-cumin-themost-globalized-spice-in-the-world.

M. E. Kislev, A. Hartmann & E. Galili, 2004, ‘Archaeobotanical and archaeoentomological evidence from a well at Atlit-Yam indicates colder, more humid climate on the Israeli coast during the PPNC period’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1301–10.

E. R. Ellison, 1978, op. cit.

S. Frumin et al., 2015, ‘Studying Ancient Anthropogenic Impacts on Current Floral Biodiversity in the Southern Levant as reflected by the Philistine Migration’, Nature.

F. Rosengarten Jr, 1969, op. cit.

www.wessexarch.co.uk/news/expert-guide-archaeobotanical-evidencediet-saxon-period.

Oswald Cockayne, 1864–66, Leechdoms, wortcunning, and starcraft of early England. Being a collection of documents, for the most part never before printed, illustrating the history of science in this country before the Norman conquest; Carolingian Royalty, early eighth century CE, Capitulare de villis.

Gh. Amin, ‘Cumin’ in K. V. Peter (ed.), 2012, Handbook of herbs and spices, vol. 1.

C. Spencer, 2002, British Food: An extraordinary thousand years of history, Grub Street.

L. M. V. Totelin, 2006, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XX, 57.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

J. Turner, 2004, op. cit.

One Thousand and One Nights (or The Arabian Nights), various ages, probably from eighth century CE.

S. Raghavan, 2007, op. cit.

C. Brombacher, 1997, op. cit.; B. Pickersgill, ‘Spices’ in Sir G. Prance & M. Nesbitt (eds), 2005, The Cultural History of Plants, Routledge.

The Herb Society of America’s Essential Guide to Dill.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

Ibid., 3.

Pliny, Natural History, XX, 74.

The Herb Society of America’s Essential Guide to Dill.

M. Van der Veen & H. Tabinor, ‘Food, fodder and fuel at Mons Porphyrites: the botanical evidence’ in D. Peacock and V. Maxfield (eds), 2007, The Roman Imperial Quarries Survey and Excavation at Mons Porphyrites, 1994–1998, vol. 2.

M. Van der Veen, A. Livarda & A. Hill, 2008, op. cit.

A. Hagen, 2006, op. cit.

A. Hall, 2000, ‘A brief history of plant foods in the city of York’ in E. White (ed.), Feeding a city: York: The provision of food from Roman times to the beginning of the twentieth century, Prospect Books.

D. P. O’Meara, 2016, op. cit.

C. Spencer, 2002, op. cit.

John Partridge, 1588, The Widowes Treasure.

J. Gerard, 1597, op. cit.

Gervase Markeham, 1615, op. cit.

www.nyfoodmuseum.org/_ptime.htm.

Sir Hugh Plat, 1603, op. cit.; John Murrell, 1615, op. cit.; Robert May, 1660, op. cit; Hannah Woolley, 1664, Cook’s Guide, or Rare Receipts for Cookery.

1664, Court & Kitchin of Elizabeth, Commonly called Joan Cromwel.

Hannah Woolley, 1670, The Queen-like Closet, Or Rich Cabinet.

T. P., J. P., R. C., N. B., 1674, op. cit.

Hannah Wooley, 1677, op. cit.; Hannah Woolley, 1675, op. cit.

Eliza Smith, 1727, op. cit.

John Collins, 1682, Salt and Fishery: a discourse thereof.

Elizabeth Grey, 1653, op. cit.

Eliza Smith, 1727, op. cit.

Hannah Woolley, 1675, op. cit.

John Shirley, 1690, op. cit.

J. Sahni, 1987, op. cit.

A. Davidson, 1999, op. cit.

E. R. Ellison, 1978, op. cit.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.

Pliny, Natural History, XX, 95.

Ibid., 96.

M. Van der Veen & H. Tabinor, 2007, op. cit.

W. D. Storl, 2016, A Curious History of Vegetables: Aphrodisiacal and Healing Properties, Folk Tales, Garden Tips, and Recipes.

D. P. O’Meara, 2016, op. cit.

The Master Cooks of Richard II, 1390, op. cit.

Ariane Helou, trans., c. 1400, An Anonymous Tuscan Cookery Book.

John Murrell, 1615, op. cit.

John Murrell, 1617, op. cit.

Elizabeth Grey, 1653, op. cit.

Giles Rose, 1682, A perfect school of Instructions for the Officers of the Mouth: shewing the whole art.

John Shirley, 1690, op. cit.

Unknown, 1696, The whole duty of a woman: or a guide to the female sex.

Hannah Glasse, 1747, op. cit.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XX, 44.

M. Van der Veen, A. Livarda & A. Hill, 2008, op. cit.

A. Livarda & M. Van der Veen, 2008, op. cit.

William Langland, 1380–90?, The Vision of Piers Plowman.

Ariane Helou, trans., c. 1400, An Anonymous Tuscan Cookery Book.

Carl Linnaeus, 1753, Species Plantarum.

Thomas Dawson, 1596, op. cit.

A. Davidson, 1999, op. cit.

Herodotus, c. 430 BCE, Histories, IV, 169

‘The mystery of the lost Roman herb’, BBC Future, www.bbc.com/future/article/20170907-the-mystery-of-the-lost-roman-herb.

Chapter 4

Hippocrates, Diseases III, 12, 16 (Potter, LCL).

Hippocrates, Regimen in Acute Diseases, 34.

Hippocrates, Diseases of Women I.

L. M. V. Totelin, 2006, op. cit.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit., IX, 20.

D. R. Bertoni, 2014, ‘The Cultivation and Conceptualization of Exotic Plants in the Greek and Roman Worlds’, Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

E. McDuff, 2019, ‘The Potentiality of Phytoliths in the Study of Roman Spices: An Investigation into the Nature of Phytoliths in Piper nigrum and Piper longum’, MA thesis, Brandeis University.

M. Ciaraldi, 2007, ‘People and Plants in Ancient Pompeii’, Accordia Specialist Studies, vol. 12, London.

Horace, Satires II, 4; II, 8; Horace, 2, Satire IV; 2, Epistle 1 to Augustus.

Ovid, Ars Amatoria, or The Art of Love, 2, H. T. Riley (translator), 1885.

Apicius, De Re Coquinaria.

M. Cobb, 2018, ‘Black Pepper Consumption in the Roman Empire’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 61 (4).

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 14.

Martial, Epigrams, 7, 27, 1865, Bohn’s Classical Library, Bell & Daldy, London.

Martial, Epigrams, 13, 13.

Celsus, De Medicina.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 2.

M. Robinson & E. Rowan, 2015, op. cit.; K. Reed & T. Leleković, 2019, ‘First evidence of rice (Oryza cf. sativa L.) and black pepper (Piper nigrum) in Roman Mursa, Croatia’, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 11.

vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/Search/tablet-xml-files/184.xml [Tablet 184].

Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana, III, 4.

F. De Romanis, 2015, ‘Comparative Perspectives on the Pepper Trade’ in F. De Romanis & M. Maiuro (eds), 2015, Across the Ocean: Nine essays on Indo-Mediterranean trade, Brill.

Zosimus, Historia Nova, 5.

C. Spencer, 2002, op. cit.

A. Hagen, 2006, op. cit.

P. W. Hammond, 1998, Food and Feast in Medieval England, Wrens Park.

The household book of Dame Alice de Bryene, of Acton Hall, Suffolk, Sept 1412–Sept 1413, Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and Natural History.

P. W. Hammond, 1998, op. cit.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, op. cit.; E. H. Warmington, 1928, The commerce between the Roman Empire and India.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 48.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 44; Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

Cosmas Indicopleustes, The Christian Topography, Book 11.

W. H. Schoff, 1912, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Longmans, Green & Co., New York.

C. Ptolemy, Geography, VII, 2, 16.

Digest of Justinian, Book 39, 7.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 42.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 43.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit., IX, 1, 2.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 19.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

A. Gismondi, A. D’Agostino, G. Di Marco, C. Martinez-Labarga, V. Leonini, O. Rickards & A. Canini, 2020, ‘Back to the roots: dental calculus analysis of the first documented case of coeliac disease’, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 12, 6.

Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, VI, 22.

A. Reddy, 2013, ‘Looking from Arabia to India: Analysis of the Early Roman “India trade” in the Indian Ocean during the late Pre-Islamic Period (3rd century BC–6th century AD)’, PhD thesis, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute.

P. J. Cherian, 2011, Pattanam archaeological site: The wharf context and the maritime exchanges.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 63.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 26.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit., IX, 20; Pliny, Natural History, XII, 14; Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 2; Horace, 2, Satire IV; 2, Epistle 1 to Augustus; Cosmas Indicopleustes, op. cit.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit., IX, 20.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 14.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit., Odours, 32.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 15.

Cosmas Indicopleustes, op. cit.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 2.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 14.

C. Ptolemy, Geography, VII, 4, 1.

P. Frankopan, 2015, op. cit.

G. K. Young, 1988, ‘The long-distance “international” trade in the Roman east and its political effects 318 BC–AD 305’, PhD thesis, University of Tasmania.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, II, 5, 12.

F. De Romanis, 2015, op. cit.

Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana, Book III, ch. 4.

M. Cobb, 2018, op. cit.; G. K. Young, 1988, op. cit.

P. T. Parthasarathi, 2015, ‘Roman Control and Influence on the Spice Trade Scenario of Indian Ocean World: A Re-Assessment of Evidences’, Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 3.

M. Cobb, 2015, ‘The Chronology of Roman Trade in the Indian Ocean from Augustus to Early Third Century AD’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 58.

G. K. Young, 1988, op. cit.

Strabo, c. 18 CE, Geographica, II, 3.

J. W. McCrindle, 1879, The Commerce and Navigation of the Erythraean Sea: being a translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei and Arrian’s Account of the Voyage of Nearkhos, Bombay, Calcutta, London.

J. Whitewright, 2018, ‘The ships and shipping of Indo-Roman trade’, Journal on Hellenistic and Roman Material Culture, vol. 6, issue 2.

Pliny, Natural History, VI, 34.

Ibid. VI, 26.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, op. cit.

S. Ghosh, 2014, ‘Barbarikon in the Maritime Trade Network of Early India’ in R. Mukherjee (ed.), Vanguards of Globalization: Port-Cities from the Classical to the Modern, pp. 59–74, Primus Publications, New Delhi.

D. Catsambis, 2012, The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, pp. 518–19, quoted in R. McLaughlin, 2014, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean, Pen & Sword.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, op. cit.

Cosmas Indicopleustes, op. cit.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, op. cit.

D. Dayalan, 2018, ‘Ancient seaports on the western coast of India – the hub of maritime silk route network’, Acta Via Serica, vol. 3, 2; R. Nanji & V. D. Gogte, 2005, A search for the Early Historic ports on the west coast of India.

K. F. Dalal, E. Emanuel Mayer, R. G. Raghavan, R. Mitra-Dalat, S. Kale & A. Shinde, 2018, ‘The Hippocampus of Kuda: A Mediterranean motif which validates the identification of the Indo-Roman port of Mandagora’, Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, Nos 13–14.

D. Dayalan, 2018, op. cit.

Ibid.

Ibid.

A. C. Burnell, Ind. Ant., vol. VII, p.40.

D. Dayalan, 2019, ‘Ancient seaports on the eastern coast of India – the hub of the maritime silk route network’, Acta Via Serica, vol. 4, 1.

Sundaresh & P. Gudigar, 1992, ‘Kaveripattinam: an ancient port’ in Baiderbettu Upendra Nayak et al. (eds), New Trends in Indian Art and Archaeology.

C. Ptolemy, Geography, VII, 1, 13.

R. Chakravarti, 2012, op. cit.

L. Casson, 1989, The Periplus Maris Erythraei, Princeton University Press.

L. Faucheux, 1945, Une vieille cise indienne pres de Pondichery, Virampatnam, Pondicherry; R. E. M. Wheeler et al., 1946, ‘Arikamedu: an Indo-Roman trading station on the east coast of India’, Ancient India, 2.

V. Begley, 1983, ‘New investigations at the port of Arikamedu’, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 6.

Pliny, Natural History, VI, 26.

The Akananuru, 149.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, op. cit.

D. Rathbone, 2021, ‘Too much pepper? F. De Romanis, The Indo-Roman Pepper Trade and the Muziris Papyrus, Oxford (2020)’, Topoi, vol. 24, 439–65.

F. De Romanis, 2015, op. cit.

W. H. Schoff, 1912, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Longmans, Green, and Co.; A. Kumar, 2008, ‘A probe to locate Kerala’s early historic trade emporium of Nelcynda’, Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, 5.

O. Bopearachichi, 2014, Maritime Trade and Cultural Exchanges in the Indian Ocean: India and Sri Lanka, IGNC.

E. H. Warmington, 1928, op. cit.

D. S. A. Munasinghe & D. C. V. Fernando, Trading Relationships between Ancient Sri Lanka and Ancient Greece and Rome, Oracle.

D. P. M. Weerakoddy, 1995, ‘Roman coins of Sri Lanka: some observations’, The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities, vol. 21, 1&2.

J. M. Sudharmawathei, 2017, ‘Foreign trade relations in Sri Lanka in the ancient period: with special reference to the period from 6th century BC to 16th century AD’, Humanities and Social Sciences Review, 7, 2.

C. Ptolemy, Geography, VII, 4, 1.

E. Kingwell-Banham et al., 2018, ‘Spice and rice: pepper, cloves and everyday cereal foods at the ancient port of Mantai, Sri Lanka’, Antiquity, 92, 366.

R. Chakravarti, 2012, op. cit.

Cai-Zhen Hong, 2016, ‘A Study of Spice Trade from the Quanzhou Maritime Silk Road in Song and Yuan Dynasties’, 2nd Annual International Conference on Social Science and Contemporary Humanity Development, Atlantis.

Capt. Drury, 1851, ‘Remarks on some lately-discovered Roman Gold Coins’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, XX, V.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, op. cit.

Ibid.

F. De Romanis, 2012, ‘Playing Sudoku on the Verso of the “Muziris Papyrus”: Pepper, Malabathron and Tortoise Shell in the Cargo of the Hermapollon’, Journal of Ancient Indian History, 27.

F. De Romanis, 2015, op. cit.

B. Fauconnier, 2012, ‘Graeco-Roman merchants in the Indian Ocean: Revealing a multicultural trade’, Topoi Orient-Occident, Suppl. 11.

R. McLaughlin, 2014, op. cit.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 41.

Pliny, Natural History, VI, 26.

A. Wilson & A. Bowman (eds), 2017, Trade, Commerce, and the State in the Roman World, Oxford University Press.

A. M. Kotarba-Morley, 2019, ‘Ancient Ports of Trade on the Red Sea Coasts – The “Parameters of Attractiveness” of Site Locations and Human Adaptations to Fluctuating Land- and Sea-Scapes. Case Study Berenike Troglodytica, Southeastern Egypt’ in Najeeb M. A. Rasul & I. C. F. Stewart (eds), Geological Setting, Palaeoenvironment and Archaeology of the Red Sea, Springer.

T. Power, 2013, The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate AD 500–1000, American University in Cairo Press.

M. Cobb, 2015, op. cit.

pcma.uw.edu.pl/en/2019/04/17/berenike-2/.

A. Reddy, 2013, op. cit.

W. Z. Wendrich et al., 2003, ‘Berenike Crossroads: The integration of information’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 46, 1.

M. Cobb, 2015, op. cit.

J. Whitewright, 2007, ‘Roman Rigging Material from the Red Sea Port of Myos Hormos’, The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 36.2.

C. Haas, 1997, Alexandria in Late Antiquity: Topography and Social Conflict, John Hopkins University Press.

Strabo, c.18 CE, Geographica, XVII, 1.13

C. Taylor Sen, 2015, op. cit.; P. N. Ravindran, 2009, spicesbuds.blogspot.com/2009/05/spices-in-ancient-india.html.

E. McDuff, 2019, op. cit.

L. M. V. Totelin, 2006, op. cit.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit., IX, 20.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 14.

M. Cobb, 2018, op. cit.

F. Sabban, 1985, op. cit.

S. Ims, 2012, op. cit.

The Master Cooks of Richard II, 1390, op. cit.

John Russell, 1460–70, op. cit.

Walter Bailey, 1588, A short discourse on the three kinds of pepper in common use and certaine special medicines made of the same, tending to the preseruation of health.

J. Gerard, 1597, op. cit.

M. Gill, 2016, ‘Spices’, Indian Horizons, vol. 63, 3.

J. Sahni, 1987, op. cit.

Dr Q. Z. Ahmad, A. U. Rahman & Tajuddin, 2017, ‘Ethnobotany and therapeutic potential of kabab chini (Piper cubeba)’, World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.

S. Ims, 2012, op. cit.

P. N. Ravindran, 2017, The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices.

John Crawfurd, 1820, History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. 1, Archibald Constable & Co., Edinburgh.

Table 6

J. F. Smith et al., 2008, op. cit.

I. Y. Attah, 2012, ‘Characterisation and HPLC quantification of piperine in various parts of Piper Guineense’, MPhil thesis, Kwame Nkrumah University, Ghana.

E. Besong et al., 2016, ‘A Review of Piper guineense (African Black Pepper)’, Human Journals, vol. 6, 1.

U. C. Srivastava & K. V. Saji, ‘Under-exploited species of Piperaceae and their uses’ in K. S. Krishnamurthy et al., 2008, Piperaceae Crops – Technologies and Future Perspectives, National Seminar on Plperaceae – Harnessing Agro-technologies for Accelerated Production of Economically Important Piper Species, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut.

Tran Dang Xuan et al., 2008, ‘Efficacy of extracting solvents to chemical components of kava (Piper methysticum) roots’, Journal of Natural Medicines, 62.

V. Lebot & J. Levesque, 1989, ‘The origin and distribution of kava (Piper methysticum, Forst. F., Piperaceae): a phytochemical approach’, Allertonia, vol. 5, 2.

V. Lebot & P. Simeoni, 2004, ‘Is the Quality of Kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.) Responsible for Different Geographical Patterns?’, Ethnobotany Research & Applications, 2, 19–28.

J. Lindley, 1838, Flora medica.

tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Piper+amalago.

B. Salehi et al., 2019, ‘Piper Species: A Comprehensive Review on Their Phytochemistry, Biological Activities and Applications’, Molecules, 24, 7.

A. Baptista et al., 2019, ‘Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Piper amalago L. (Piperaceae) collected in coastal Ecuador’, Pharmacology online, vol. 3.

M. Avril, 2008, ‘A study case on Timiz (Piper Capense)’.

B. Salehi et al., 2019, op. cit.

U. C. Srivastava & K. V. Saji, ‘Under-exploited species of Piperaceae and their uses’ in K. S. Krishnamurthy et al., 2008, op. cit.

‘Piper chaba vines lucrative for Kurigram farmers’, The Daily Star, 4 August 2017.

Local spice consumption can save foreign currency, www.newagebd.net, 25 December 2019.

B. Salehi et al., 2019, op. cit.

www.rain-tree.com.

alfredhartemink.nl.

M. Vann, 2012, ‘Hoja Santa: a story of the sacred Mexican root beer leaf pepper plant’, www.austinchronicle.com/daily/food/2012-08-24/hoja-santa/.

Chapter 5

H. N. Ridley, 1912, Spices, Macmillan & Co. Ltd, London.

G. Watt, 1908, The commercial products of India, John Murray, London.

A. C. Burnell, 1885, The voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies, vol. 1, ch. 10, The Hakluyt Society, London.

P. A. Tiele, 1885, The voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies, vol. 2, ch. 64, The Hakluyt Society, London.

K. P. Nair, 2020, The Geography of Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum M) The Queen of Spices, vol. 2, Springer.

A. Kashyap, 2015 in K. B. Metheny & M. C. Beaudry (eds), Archaeology of Food: An Encyclopedia, Rowman & Littlefield; A. Kashyap & S. Weber, 2010, ‘Harappan plant use revealed by starch grains from Farmana, India’, Antiquity, 84, 326.

K. P. Prabhakaran Nair, 2013, The Agronomy and Economy of Turmeric and Ginger, Elsevier.

Sushruta, c. eighth century BCE, Sushruta Samhita, Ch. 46.

L. A. Lyall (translator), 1909, The Sayings of Confucius, Book X, 8, Longmans, Green & Co.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, op. cit.

C. Ptolemy, Geography, VII, 4, 1.

R. Strong, 2002, Feast: A History of Grand Eating, Jonathan Cape, London.

F. Rosengarten Jr, 1969, op. cit.

B. P. Foley et al., 2011, op. cit.

J. Innes Miller, 1969, op. cit.; M. Khvostov, 1907, Researches into the history of oriental commerce in Graeco-Roman Egypt, Kazan University.

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 14.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 2.

E. H. Warmington, 1928, op. cit.; Sallust, Histories, Book IV, 72, B. Maurenbrecher (ed.), 1891 (in Latin).

Pliny, Natural History, XII, 28.

Ibid. XII, 29.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 1.

E. H. Warmington, 1928, op. cit., p. 185.

S. Santos Braga, 2019, ‘Ginger: Panacea or Consumer’s Hype?’, Applied Science, 9, 1570.

Apicius, De Re Coquinaria.

Hippocrates, Epidemics VII, 118.

Theophrastus, fourth–third century BCE, op. cit.

Celsus, De Medicina, III, 21; Ibid. vol. 24.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 2.

Ibid. 1.

A. Gismondi et al., 2020, op. cit.

F. Rosengarten Jr, 1969, op. cit.

R. Tannahill, 1973, Food in History.

Digest of Justinian, 39, 16.7.

K. S. Mathew, 1983, Portuguese trade with India in the sixteenth century, New Delhi.

A. Hagen, 2006, op. cit.

C. Spencer, 2002, op. cit.

H. N. Ridley, 1912, op. cit.

J. Turner, 2004, op. cit.

A. C. Burnell, 1885, op. cit., ch. 31.

M. Van Der Veen, 2015, op. cit.

H. N. Ridley, 1912, op. cit.

C. Spencer, 2002, op. cit.

F. J. Green, 1979, op. cit.

W. E. Mead, 1931, The English Medieval Feast, George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

The Master Cooks of Richard II, 1390, op. cit.

J. O. Halliwell (ed.), 1883, The voiage and travaile of Sir John Maundeville, kt., which treateth of the way to Hierusalem; and of marvayles of Inde, with other ilands and countryes, rKeprinted from 1725 edition, Reeves and Turner, London.

Anon., 1393, Le Menagier de Paris, Jerome Pichon (ed.), 1846, La Societe des Bibliophiles François.

S. Ims, 2012, op. cit. hspace=0 vspace=0 align=left> 49